Fish culture in Burma is a recent enterprise and the interest for the development of this industry practically started after independence was attained.
Ling (1955, p.3) noted that:
“Neither stocking operations nor cultivation are practised, although for purposes of accuracy mention must be made of the holding of fish in some temple ponds for religious purposes. It is difficult to explain the absence of these practices in view of:
the presence of so many bodies of water of all sizes suitable for stocking and cultivation;
the availability of suitable species [especially the Indian major carps] for these purposes; and
the cultural and technical contact between Burma and Bengal in the west and China in the north-east.
Since it is certain that the absence of these practices is not caused by any biological, physico-chemical or other natural circumstances, the conclusion is inescapable that certain social and economic factors have been responsible.”
One reason for this may be the religious belief of Buddhists which forbids the killing of animals and in purity of livelihood, did not encourage people to engage themselves in the industry. According to FAO/UN (1957, p.33), “The fishermen of Burma belong to the group with the lowest social status in the community ....”. This factor may also have been responsible for the people's apparent indifference towards this industry. Further, it is probable that, until comparatively recently, the native fisheries based on the natural wild stocks, particularly those of the delta and seasonally flooded areas, together with the practice of preparing fermented sauces and pastes from local and seasonal surplus supplies of fish, more or less adequately served the needs of the population.
It was only after the country attained independence that a few interested persons especially in lower Burma started stocking some ponds and other small water areas with fingerlings of major carps collected from the River Irrawaddy or the adjoining fisheries. But due to lack of proper technical knowledge these attempts at fish culture did not meet with much success. Interest in fish culture received a fresh impetus however when the fish farm at Hlawga Fisheries Station was established by the Fisheries Division of the Agricultural and Rural Development Corporation (ARDC) and private fish culturists were supplied with fry of cultivated species and given the technical know-how of fish culture.
At present the interest is widespread throughout the country and many private persons are taking up fish culture as an industry more so because of the rising price of fish and the high profit made by fish farmers. Since the law forbids construction of fish ponds in lands suitable for paddy culture, large-scale construction of new ponds for fish culture has not materialized. However, fish culture activity throughout the country is increasing day by day, especially in Mandalay and neighbouring areas in upper Burma where fish farmers are constructing small ponds in any available space and culturing Tilapia. Consequent to the increase in popularity of fish culture, the demand for the supply of fish seed of the food fishes has increased tremendously and the Directorate of Fisheries is trying to meet this demand.
With a view to promoting development of fish culture and initiating research on its problems, the Government of Burma has established several fish farms and fish culture stations. At present there are six stations under the Directorate of Fisheries: two purely fresh water, two marine, one brackish water, and one a research station meant for research on both inland and marine fishery problems.
(i) Hlawga Fisheries Station
This station, established in 1952, is 14 miles from Rangoon, below the Hlawga Lake dam which supplies water to Rangoon. The fish farm has a total area of 55 acres which includes 13 nurseries, 5 rearing ponds and 14 stocking ponds. There are also a few cement cisterns for rearing spawn. The farm gets its water from Hlawga Lake. The ponds have individual inlets and outlets and can be drained or filled independently.
Immediately after its construction the fish farm was used for Tilapia culture and as a Tilapia distribution center. From 1957 major carp culture was initiated at the farm and this is now the main center where the bulk of the carp spawn collected from rivers is reared and advanced fry and fingerlings distributed to public and governmental agencies. Supply of quality fish seed is one of the main activities of the fish culture section of the Directorate. Major carp breeders are being reared in a few stocking ponds to be used in induced fish breeding experiments during 1967 when this farm will be the main center for the commercial production of fish seed. Besides major carps, exotic fishes such as common carp (Cyprinus carpio), tilapia (Tilapia mossambica), gourami (Osphronemus goramy) and a few specimens of grass carp (Ctenopharyngodon idella), bighead (Aristichthys nobilis) and black carp (Mylopharyngodon piceus) are also present in the ponds.
Eight of the large-size stocking ponds having a total area of about 35 acres have been transferred to PPFB and are at present under the management of the Board who are mainly concerned with the production aspect of fish culture.
(ii) Phalan Research Station
The Phalan Research Station is situated in the Kyaukton township of Hanthawaddy District, about 13 miles from Rangoon. It was established in 1955, intended for carrying out research on inland as well as marine fisheries. Inland fishery research envisages problems such as those concerned with experimental culture of major carps and tilapia, pond fertilization, and culture of milkfish (Chanos chanos) and mullet (Mugil sp.). The station has eight ponds with an area of 3 acres for brackish water fish culture and 15 acres, comprising three nurseries and six stocking ponds, for fresh water fish culture. A 70-acre reservoir supplies water for the fresh water ponds.
(iii) Thayetken Inland Fisheries Station
Thayetkon Fisheries Station was constructed in the vicinity of Mandalay town in upper Burma in 1957. The fish farm consists of nine nurseries, three rearing ponds and one stocking pond, having a total area of 6.5 acres. Tilapia, as well as major carps, are cultured. The nurseries are used for rearing carp spawn for distribution of carp fry in upper and central Burma. One pond has been stocked with the exotic fish Sepat siam (Trichogaster pectoralis).
(iv) In addition to the above-mentioned fresh water stations, the Pyinpyaman Fisheries Station at Kyaukpyu is mainly used for the culture of milkfish.
(v) Twante Fish Farm
Twante Fish Farm, under the management of the People's Pearl and Fisheries Board of the Government of Burma, is located 18 miles from Rangoon, adjacent to the Twante canal which is connected with the River Irrawaddy. The total area under cultivation is now 104 acres. This will be extended to 320 acres during 1966–67, and according to the plans of PPFB, a total of 1,000 acres of water area will come under cultivation by 1970.
The ponds, provided with inlets and outlets, receive water from the Twante canal which is connected with the River Irrawaddy and has tidal effects. The water is slightly saline.
The ponds are stocked with major carps and also with common carp (Israeli strain). The fingerlings of major carps are supplied by the Directorate of Fisheries. Usually two to three-inch fingerlings are stocked at the rate of 3,000 per acre. Artificial feeding is done daily with rice bran. Poultry farming has been started on the farm to secure poultry manure for fertilizing the fish ponds. Superphosphate is also used, though not very regularly. The ponds are usually fished out every two years. Fish production is reported to be roughly 1,800 lbs per acre per annum. The farm is now staffed by a deputy farm manager, two assistants and six fishermen.
(vi) Tartabaw Fish Farm
This 40-acre farm, also managed by the PPFB, is situated 15 miles from the Twante Fish Farm and is fed by water from the River Irrawaddy. It is operated more or less in the same manner as the Twante Fish Farm. The salinity of water in the farm is less than that of Twante water.
The expert visited a good number of private fish ponds at Pawngde, Yandoon, Mandalay, Yamethin, Lawksawk, Nyangshwe and Kyawkse. Major carps are mainly cultured in lower Burma but in the dry zone, especially in and around Mandalay and Kyawkse, the culture of tilapia is more common. Most of the fish farmers were unable to furnish accurate data on the rate of stocking, quantity of artificial food given or the total production of fish per annum since proper records were not maintained, and in many cases, the information which was provided did not seem to be reliable. Consequently, no definite idea about actual fish production could be obtained. It was certain, however, that the majority of the farmers were getting satisfactory returns from their ponds. One of them stated that he was getting nine times more from one acre of pond than from one acre of land. It may be noted that the good returns to the fish farmers are in most cases not because of high production of fish, but because of the very high price of fish. There is ample scope for improvement in the culture practices followed.
The expert advised the fish farmers on scientific methods of fish farming, especially the utility of mixed farming, thinning out and harvesting of marketable fish, optimum rates of stocking with compatible species and related matters. In the case of tilapia culture, the advantage of proper manipulation of population by the regular harvesting of the larger fish and elimination of small fish (if there are too many) was explained. The majority of the fish culturists were observed to feed their fish with artificial food like rice bran and in a few cases with oil cakes. Rice bran is a comparatively cheap item of artificial food in Burma, but a number of fish farmers said they had difficulty in obtaining it in sufficient quantities. Most of the farmers depend entirely on the Directorate of Fisheries for their supply of fish seed for stocking.
• 41 Richness of the resource
Burma is very rich in fishery resources. There is a large number of water areas, both large and small, suitable for fish culture, and a good number of important cultivable species. Among the indigenous ones are: Catla catla (Nga-thaing), Labeo rohita (Nga-myitchin), L. nandina (Nga-Ohn-done), L. calbasu (Nga-net-pya), and Cirrhina mrigala (Nga-gyin).
Besides, a few exotic fishes such as Cyprinus carpio (Nga-hpein, Israeli and Indonesian strains), Tilapia mossambica and Osphronemus goramy are also available for culture. Having such potentialities, fish culture in Burma could be greatly developed following proper planning and a well formulated program for long-range development throughout the country.
• 42 Present Government plans for promotion of fish culture
Projects planned by the Government of Burma for development of fish culture come under three main headings:
Survey of new sites for fish culture and establishment of model farms.
Production of an adequate quantity of fish seed for stocking.
Proper culture of indigenous and exotic fishes.
For extension of fish culture throughout the country, it is essential to explore new areas for construction of new ponds and the Government has taken up such a survey. As mentioned before, the Government has already established a few fish farms which are mainly used for the rearing of fish seed and its distribution to the public or for stocking their own farms.
At present stocking materials are collected from rivers, reared in nurseries in fish farms and then distributed to the public. The Government has already made extensive surveys of spawn collection sites. The quantity of spawn collected is increasing every year but the demand for fish seed is also increasing. The following table will give an idea of the increasing demand:
| Year | Total spawn collected from rivers | Total number of fingerlings distributed |
| 1961–62 | 600,000 | 70,000 |
| 1962–63 | 600,000 | 400,000 |
| 1963–64 | 900,000 | 600,000 |
| 1964–65 | 2,000,000 | 800,000 |
| 1965–66 | 5,000,000 | 1,000,000 |
The third important project is the proper culture of indigenous as well as exotic fishes. The Government has initiated culture of major carps on a large scale. At present a total of about 200 acres of ponds in Government farms are under cultivation and the area is going to be further extended to over 1,000 acres.
Common carp, Cyprinus carpio (Israeli strain) is also cultured along with the major carps to a certain extent, and the Government is contemplating the extension of common carp culture to higher altitudes. Accordingly, the expert accompanied by the counterpart officer and the Director of Fisheries visited Maymyo in upper Burma and Taunggyi, in the southern Shan state. Both these towns are situated at an altitude of about 3,000–4,000 ft above sea level. The main purpose of the trip was to study the condition and advise on the feasibility of carp culture at such altitudes. At Maymyo town there are a few small impoundments in and around the botanical garden which might be taken up for the culture of Cyprinus carpio (Israeli strain) which thrives well in cold waters. Culture of the Israeli strain might also be introduced into the Shan states. A site near Shwenyang town 12 miles from Taunggyi, the headquarters of the southern Shan state, was tentatively selected during the visit as suitable for the construction of a fish farm for the distribution of seed of common carp for its propagation and culture in the area - if thought advisable.
The other exotic fish, Tilapia mossambica, first brought to Burma in 1952, was released in the Hlawga Fish Farm ponds. The fish was bred and the fry were distributed to the public. But in spite of these attempts, Tilapia could not establish itself in lower Burma probably because of the abundance of predators like Wallago attu and Ophiocephalus striatus (Nga-yan). However, its culture seems to have developed to a great extent in upper and central Burma. Here it is cultured in small shallow ponds and even in cement cisterns.
In addition to these two exotic fishes, the Government is keen to introduce the Chinese grass carp (Ctenopharyngodon idella) in Burma as a biological control for submerged aquatic weeds.
• 43 Fish culture in lakes
Throughout Burma, there is a large number of small and big impoundments which could be used for fish culture. In Rangoon city itself, there are two beautiful lakes suitable for fish culture. Moreover, Burma has two large fresh water lakes, Lake Inle and Lake Indiawgyi. A visit was made to Lake Inle in the southern Shan state. The lake, situated 3,000 ft above sea level, has a luxuriant growth of submerged aquatic vegetation comprised mostly of Ceratophyllum, Hydrilla, Najas and Potamogeton. The fish population in the lake includes very few commercially important species. The only economic species worth mentioning are Ophiocephalus striatus, Clarius batrachus and Puntius sarana caudimarginatus. There is also a variety of common carp endemic in the lake and adjoining areas called Cyprinus carpio intha. This variety is a very slow growing one. The fish production in the lake, as reported, is very meagre.
Tubb (see FAO/UN, 1957) suggested the introduction of the Chinese grass carp in the lake to control submerged vegetation. Accordingly, the Government of Burma made an attempt in 1957 to stock the lake with grass carp but without much success. This subject deserves further attention and an ecological survey preceding the establishment of suitable holding and rearing ponds to raise the introduced species to yearling size is necessary. Such a study may lead to a program of introduction of other species also.
Lake Indawgyi, in northern Burma, is the biggest lake. It has an indigenous population of major carps such as Catla catla, Labeo rohita, and Cirrhina mrigala. Due to shortage of time and for security reasons, the expert was not able to visit the lake and give any suggestions for its development. However, he feels that many of these lakes and smaller impoundments could be utilized for fish culture which would ultimately help in increasing Burma's fish production.
Preliminary attempts made by the Government to develop interest in fish culture in Burma have been very encouraging. Private persons have become interested in the industry and taken up fish culture as a means of livelihood. The following table shows the increasing popularity of fish culture and gradual increase in the area under pond fish culture.
| Year | Persons engaged in fish culture | Total pond area (in acres) under cultivation |
| 1961–62 | 50 | 100 |
| 1962–63 | 79 | 601.4 |
| 1963–64 | 171 | 1433.74 |
| 1964–65 | 252 | 1495.13 |
| 1965–66 | 378 | 1755.63 |
However, several major problems stand in the way of rapid development of the industry. The main problems are enumerated below:
(i) A need for increased seed production
With the expansion of fish culture, the demand for stocking materials has also increased tremendously. Despite the Government establishment of spawn collection centers on the main rivers of Burma, results of wild fish seed collections from the rivers are not encouraging. The collections often contain a high percentage of non-economic varieties and the quantity is not adequate to meet the increasing demand. The alternative is to produce fish seed of the economic food fishes on a large scale through induced breeding of major carps by hormone injections.
(ii) Lake of technical knowledge
The lack of an adequate number of trained technical staff with knowledge of scientific pisciculture also stands in the path of rapid development of fish culture. To achieve success, an intimate knowledge of all the operations involved in nursery, rearing and stocking pond management is essential.
(iii) Need for scientific research
Very little scientific data are available in Burma on the limnological conditions of the fisheries waters and practically no research has been done on the problems of fish culture. Furthermore, there is a shortage of trained personnel to undertake such research.
The Government of Burma is making an earnest effort to solve the problems mentioned above. They have asked FAO for the services of a fish culture expert for a period of two years to advise and assist them on the development and extension of scientific fish culture, including surveys of areas available for fish culture, commercial production of major carp fish seed by induced breeding, initiation of selective breeding and hybridization, introduction and culture of suitable exotic species, and training of technical personnel.
The Government has also initiated research on problems related to both culture and capture fisheries and suitable staff to conduct research are being recruited. The Government has proposed the establishment of an institute for fisheries training, having a two-year diploma course. The institute is expected to start by 1970, and staff are being trained. At present, three students are undergoing training in the U.S.S.R. in marine fisheries and it is proposed that two more be sent to the Central Institute for Fisheries Education in Bombay, India, for two years of training in both inland and marine fisheries.
