2. FEEDING METHODS - COMPLETE DIET FEEDING

2.1 Introduction

In contrast to extensive and semi-intensive farming systems where the cultured species derive all or a substantial part of their nutrient needs from naturally available pond food organisms, fish and shrimp maintained under intensive clear-water culture conditions (ie. cement tanks or raceways, and cages suspended in open water bodies) are totally dependent on the external provision of a nutritionally ‘complete’ diet throughout their culture cycle (for definition see 1.1.4).

The development of artificial diets (ie. complete pelleted feeds) for use within intensive aquaculture production systems has been based largely on the nutritional and manufacturing techniques pioneered and developed by the intensive poultry industry. Whilst this ‘borrowed’ technology may suffice for the development of complete diets intended for use within intensive clear-water aquaculture systems and for fish species which rapidly consume their food (ie. such as salmonids), the aquatic environment poses many technological and nutritional difficulties for the aquaculture feed technologist; for example, developing artificial diets for use within semi-intensive earth pond production systems (due to the presence of natural live food organisms and the difficulties of assessing their role in the overall nutritional balance of the cultivated species), and developing rations for shrimp and fish species which have very slow demersal feeding habits and who require to masticate their food externally prior to ingestion (due to difficulties of feed disintegration and loss of water-soluble nutrients through leaching). Furthermore, in contrast to the intensive poultry industry, where basic dietary nutrient requirements (including those for metabolizable energy) are well established, there is scant information on the basic dietary nutrient requirements of the major cultivated aquaculture species (Tacon, 1987). At present, these short comings are overcome in-part by formulating diets with a high inherent nutrient safety factor; the use of which being economically justifiable only because of the generally high market value of the major commercially cultivated aquaculture species (ie. marine shrimp and fish, salmonids, freshwater prawns). Clearly, this situation must be rectified if maximum economic benefit is to be gained from the farming system employed.

It must be stated at the outset that the success of a complete diet feeding strategy based on the use of a dry or semi-moist pelleted feed is dependent on five important factors, namely:

• The nutritional characteristics of the diet formulated (ie. ingredient selection, nutrient level, digestibility and quality control).

• The manufacturing process used to produce the formulated ration and the physical characteristics of the resultant diet (ie. cold pelleting, steam pelleting, grinding, microencapsulation, air dried, freeze dried, sun dried, pellet, feed mash, feed size, shape, colour, texture, bouyancy or spacial behaviour within the water column, and water stability).

• The handling and storage of the manufactured diet prior to usage on the farm (ie. length of storage, environmental storage conditions - temperature, humidity, irradiation, ventilation, and packing material used).

• The feeding method employed (ie. hand or mechanised feeding, feeding frequency, feeding rate - feeding tables, satiation feeding, or demand feeding).

• The water quality of the culture system (ie. temperature, photoperiod, dissolved oxygen and mineral concentration, salinity, turbidity and water circulation pattern).

Each of the above mentioned factors hold equal importance; the failure of one reducing the effectiveness of the others. Clearly, the nutritionist must work in tandem with the feed processor and aquaculture biologist if maximum nutritional and economic benefit is to be gained from complete diet feeding.

In this review emphasis will therefore be placed on the multi-disciplinary approach toward complete diet feeding, and in particular concerning the resolution of those nutritional and technological problems unique to aquaculture, rather than reciting well established animal feed formulation and manufacturing techniques. Readers requiring detailed information on the commercial formulation and fabrication of complete feeds should consult the excellent reviews of ADCP (1980, 1983), Cho, Cowey and Watanabe (1985), Coll Morales (1983), Crampton (1985), Halver and Tiews (1979), New (1987), Palmer-Jones and Halliday (1971), Pfost and Pickering (1976), and Robinson and Wilson (1985).

2.2 Formulation of complete diets

2.2.1 Considerations

The following factors should be considered when formulating a practical fish or shrimp ration for use within a intensive aquaculture system:

Market value of the aquaculture species to be farmed: as a rule of thumb feed cost should not exceed 20–25% of the farm gate value of the cultured fish or shrimp (ADCP, 1983; Crampton, 1985); a high product market value justifying (if so required) the selection and use of more expensive and higher quality feed ingredients and feed manufacturing techniques (ie. such as the use of rehydratable expanded pelleted feeds for shrimp and marine flatfish, Cadena Roa et. al., 1982).

Feeding behaviour and digestive capacity of the species to be farmed: is the aquaculture species in question a carnivore, omnivore or herbivore; a benthic, pelagic or surface feeder; a day-time, twilight or nocturnal feeder; a visual or olfactory feeder; a moist or dry diet feeder; a rapid or slow feeder; and does the species in question have an acid secreting stomach and possess a full compliment of digestive enzymes. These factors, together with the proposed production unit (ie. tank, cage or earth pond) will dictate if a floating, slow-sinking or sinking feed is required, and will also determine the physical characteristics of the feed to be produced (ie. size, bouyancy, colour, texture, palatability and desired water stability). Similarly, the formulation of a diet for a stomachless fish species or a shrimp will necessitate the use of dietary phosphorus and calcium sources which release their native elements within an alkaline digestive environment (ie. such as the use of plant phytates, whey products and skim milk powder; Tacon, 1987).

Intended feed manufacturing process to be used: straight mixing, cold pelleting, conventional steam pelleting, expansion steam pelleting, flaking, crumbling or microencapsulation. For example, expansion steam pelleting requires the presence of relatively high amounts of starch containing cereal grains within the formulation so as to facilitate starch gelatinization and obtain the desired expansion texture; cold pelleting techniques require the use of special binders which do not have to be activated by heat (ie. such as the use of alginate binders within semi-moist pelleted fish feeds); and microencapsulation techniques for larval shrimp require the use of soluble and highly digestible dietary protein sources such as egg proteins and invertebrate tissue homogenates (Cho, Cowey and Watanabe, 1985).

Dietary nutrient requirements of the species to be farmed: including the dietary protein, essential amino acid, essential fatty acid, vitamin, mineral and energy (if known) requirements for all stages of the life cycle. For suggested dietary nutrient specifications see ADCP (1983), New (1987), NRC (1983) and Tacon (1987; Tables 15–18).

Available feed ingredient sources: nutrient content of available feed ingredients, including quality control and cost (at source and with transportation). The availability, nutritional quality and cost of individual feedstuffs (including micro-nutrient sources such as vitamins, minerals, amino acids, antioxidants and mould inhibitors) will dictate the type of ration which can be formulated. General quality control guides for feed ingredients intended for use within complete diets have been given by ANFAR (1985), Cho, Cowey and Watanabe (1985), Cockerell, Halliday and Morgan (1975), Cooley (1976), Deyoe (1976), Smith (1986) and Tacon (1987a). For example, Table 1 presents the recommended nutritional quality of fish meal and fish oil for salmonid rations.

Table 1. Recommended quality of fish meal and oil for salmonid diets ¹

¹ From Cho (1980)
² Heavy metal content of the meal should also be checked

Digestibility of the ingredient sources to the fish or shrimp species: the biological availability of the individual nutrients (ie. protein, amino acids, lipid, carbohydrate, minerals, vitamins and energy) contained within ingredient sources to the fish or shrimp species in question. For example, Table 2 summarises the apparent digestibility coefficients of some common feed ingredient sources for rainbow trout (Salmo gairdneri).

Table 2. Apparent digestibility coefficients of selected ingredients for rainbow trout ¹

¹ From Cho, Cowey and Watanabe (1985)

It must be emphasised here that the digestibility of individual feed ingredients will vary depending on 1) the physical and nutritional characteristics of the material under test, 2) the manufacturing process employed in the preparation of the feed ingredient, 3) the dietary inclusion level of the feed ingredient envisaged, 4) the developmental status and digestive capacity of the fish or shrimp species in question, 5) the feeding method employed (ie. force feeding, satiation feeding, or use of a restricted feeding table), and 6) the experimental technique employed for estimating nutrient digestibility (for review see Austreng, 1978; Cho, Slinger and Bayley, 1982; Cho, Cowey and Watanabe, 1985; Choubert, De la Noüe and Luquet, 1982; Jobling, 1983; NRC, 1983; Tacon and Rodrigues, 1984; Talbot, 1985; Wilson and Poe, 1985; Smith, Peterson and Allred, 1980; Kirchgessner, Kürzinger and Schwarz, 1986; De la Noüe and Choubert, 1986; Vens-Cappell, 1985; Atkinson, Hilton and Slinger, 1984; Buddington, 1980). In view of the above factors it is clear that each ingredient (from what ever source) must be considered as being unique and evaluated (in terms of nutrient digestibility) on its own merits. In view of the difficulties encountered with the quantitative collection of faeces within an aquatic environment and the different methods employed by individual nutrition laboratories for estimating nutrient digestibility, further research is required in this subject area before confidence can be given to the digestibility coefficients obtained.

Ingredient handling/processing requirement prior to mixing or pelleting: including service (ie. electricity, water, fuel) and equipment (grinder, mincer, vibrating sieve, freezer) cost. For example, the high energy and equipment cost of fine grinding ingredients on site prior to use within fry or larval diet formulations may be reduced in-part by selecting pre-ground feed ingredient sources. Similarly, the relatively high cost of storing whole trash fish on site by freezing may be overcome by the use of less expensive acid silage techniques (Jackson, Kerr and Cowey, 1984).

Maximum/minimum dietary feed ingredient constraints: in terms of available nutrient level, possible dietary interactions with other ingredient sources (antagonisms), known endogenous anti-nutritional factors, milling and pelleting constraints, and dietary tolerance to the fish or shrimp species in question. For example, Table 3 shows the formulation constraints imposed by Robinette (1984) and Crampton (1985) for a practical pelleted diet for channel catfish (Ictalurus punctatus) and a salmonid, respectively. However, it must be stated that it is up to the user (ie. the person formulating the diet) to set his or her own dietary nutrient and ingredient constraints. There are no hard and fast rules or ‘magic formula’; the nutritional quality and cost of individual ingredient sources varying considerably from one factory or region to another, and fish and shrimp species differing in their dietary tolerance to individual feed ingredient sources (Crampton, 1985; Cho, Cowey and Watanabe, 1985). For the most part dietary nutrient and ingredient constraints are set either through practical trial and error, or through the ‘experience’ or ‘slimy’ fingers of the aquaculture feed technologist; the formulation of complete aquaculture diets still being an art rather than a science. Despite this, some dietary constraints are concessions to milling/pelleting considerations, and consequently are well understood. For example, the use of at least 20% digestible carbohydrate within expanded pelleted feeds (ie. such as corn; expansion pelleting requiring the presence of adequate amounts of starch for sufficient gelatinization, Table 3), the restriction of total dietary lipid during pelleting to 8% (ie. lipid levels above this reducing the binding quality of the pelleted feed; additional lipid may be added if required after the pellet has been formed by spraying on to the outside of the freshly pelleted feed), or the use of dietary binding agents to maintain pellet quality and reduce the dust content of the final pelleted feed (Robinson and Wilson, 1985; Cho, Cowey and Watanabe, 1985). For a review of the nutritive value of individual feed ingredients for fish and shrimp see Deshimaru (1981), Kanazawa (1983), New (1987), Spinelli (1980), Tacon and Jackson (1985), and Tacon (1987a).

Performance of the formulated feed: in terms of handling characteristics (pellet quality and durability), cost, effect on water quality (pollution effect), effect on fish or shrimp carcass quality (ie. pigmentation, lipid content, taste), and effect on fish or shrimp growth and survival (ie. food conversion efficiency, growth rate, and food to fish/shrimp cost).

Table 3. Formulation constraints imposed for a 32% crude protein extrusion processed (expanded) pelleted feed for channel catfish and a 45% crude protein conventional steam pelleted feed for a salmonid (rainbow trout) ¹

¹ Least-cost formulation constraints imposed by linear programming
² Data from Robinette (1984)
³ Amount used depends on level of free-gossypol in the meal
⁴ Data from Crampton (1985)

2.2.2 Procedure

The object of feed formulation is to mix ingredients of differing nutritional quality so as to obtain a balanced diet whose biologically available nutrient profile approximates to the dietary needs of the animal in question. However, the formulation of a practical diet is largely a compromise between what would be ideal from a nutritional viewpoint (ie. such as the production of a diet in which the protein component is entirely supplied by a high quality fish meal), and what is practical and economical. Ideally the formulation ought to reflect the nutrient requirements of the animal exactly without surpluses (but allowing for manufacturing losses), but in practice the nutrient requirements are not known with certainty and the biological availability of nutrients in feed ingredients is very often unknown. In industry there is a further object, namely, to derive a balanced diet at least cost. This is the diet that is the least expensive of the possible dietary formulae which satisfy the criteria and will meet the standards at least cost to the farmer.

In aquaculture feeding the number of possible ingredient sources and the number of nutrients in each for which requirements have been estimated are extensive. It follows therefore that a large number of arithmetric calculations are required to produce a least-cost diet. Although ‘hand’ formulations using a simple calculator may be sufficient (if not a little tedious and time consuming) for the scientist or farmer wishing to formulate a feed for use within his or her own laboratory or farm, this is not the case for the commercial feed manufacturer where time is money and profits are made or lost in the area of ingredient buying, negotiating contracts and raw material handling; feed ingredient costs currently representing about 80% of the finished feed price. To meet this demand the animal feed manufacturing industry has been employing the computer technique of linear programming since the mid-nineteen fifties. Linear programming is essentially a mathematical tool by which resources are evaluated or selected to achieve an optimal solution to a problem. The value of linear programming is in the number of ingredients and number of requirements or restrictions which can be handled in a short period of time.

Certain data must be supplied to the computer together with the programme to be executed. These data are:

• the detailed feeding standard which has to be satisfied (ie. dietary nutrient requirements), together with any permitted deviations in each nutrient;

• the detailed nutrient composition of each potential ingredient;

• any restriction on the proportion of the final mix that any one ingredient may represent, this can be a maximal or minimal value and in computer jargon is known as a constraint;

• the cost per unit weight of each ingredient.

The formula calculated by the computer will be that meeting the specification at the least cost of ingredients, hence any extra mixing or handling charge due to the inclusion of a certain ingredient must be added to the cost per unit weight of that ingredient or else added to the cost of the formula.

When using a computer it must be borne in mind that the adequacy of a diet compounded to the resultant formula will be affected by two main factors: the extent to which the feeding standards (ie. nutrient requirements) adopted adequately represent the biological needs of the fish or shrimp and the accuracy with which the amounts of nutrients in the ingredients available to the fish or shrimp are known.

Readers requiring detailed information on ‘hand’ or ‘linear programming’ formulation techniques should consult the reviews of Cho, Cowey and Watanabe (1985) and New (1987), and Barbieri and Cuzon (1980), Cho, Rumsey and Waldroup (1980), Crampton (1985), Thong (1985) and Poornan (1987), respectively. The basic procedure for formulating a complete diet has been described by Cho, Cowey and Watanabe (1985) and is summarized in Figure 1.

2.2.3 Example formulations

Prior to presenting examples of published diet formulations, it is perhaps useful to first provide a general indication of the individual feed ingredient levels commonly employed within practical complete aquaculture feeds. Table 4 therefore summarises the observed dietary inclusion levels (range and mean) of the major feed ingredients used within practical complete pelleted rations for fish and shrimp from published information, and also provides suggestions for their maximum dietary usage. The recommended maximum dietary inclusion levels presented are conservative estimates and should be used as the upper dietary limits for the early growth phase (ie. larval or fingerling stage) of the cultured fish or shrimp species.

Table 5 presents examples of complete diet formulations which have been tested and proven under practical rearing conditions (ie. working diet formulations as opposed to un-tested or hypothetical diet formulations). However, it should be stated that each of the individual practical diet formulations presented must be considered as being unique and as such should not be copied or applied on face value by persons wishing to formulate their own rations; the nutrient content, physical characteristics (ie. particle size), digestibility, and cost of individual feed ingredients varying considerably from one factory or country to another (depending on the manufacturing process employed and the quality of the raw material used).

Table 4. Observed dietary inclusion levels (%) of the major feed ingredients within practical complete pelleted fish and shrimp diets, and suggestions for their maximum dietary inclusion level (Max. level) ¹

¹ The ingredient levels presented (ranges and mean values) are for dry pelleted diets and have been derived fromvarious sources, including:
FISH - Alfalfa meal: Andrews and Stickney (1972), Cadena Roa et al., (1982), Lee (1981), Metailler, Cadena Roa,and Person-Le Ruyet (1983), Piper et al., (1982), Reinitz and Hitzel (1980), Rumsey and Ketola (1975);Blood meal: Cadena Roa et al., (1982), Crampton (1985), Fowler (1980, 1980a), Higgs et al., (1982), Lee (1981),Metailler, Cadena Roa and Person-Le Ruyet (1983), Reinitz (1983), Reinitz et al., (1978), Tacon et al., (1983,1983a); Coconut oilcake: Campbell (1985); Corn grain meal: Merola and Cantelmo (1987), Niamat and Jafri (1984),NRC (1983), Robinette (1984), Robinson, Miller and Vergara (1985), Rumsey and Ketola (1975), Tacon et al.,(1983, 1983a); Corn gluten meal: Andrews and Stickney (1972), Cho (1980), Hilton, Cho and Slinger (1981),Metailler, Menu and Moriniere (19), Metailler, Cadena Roa and Person-Le Ruyet (1983), Piper et al., (1982),Rumsey and Ketola (1975), Winfree and Stickney (1984); Corn distillers dried solubles: Lee (1981), Piper et al.,(1982), Andrews and Stickney (1972), Reinitz and Hitzel (1980), Robinette (1984), Rumsey and Ketola (1975),Cottonseed meal: Campbell (1985), Dorsa et al., (1982), Fowler (1980), Merola and Cantelmo (1987), Higgs et al.,(1982), Jackson, Capper and Matty (1982), Lee (1981), Robinson, Rawles and Stickney (1984), Robinson et al.,(1984), Viola and Zohar (1984), Winfree and Stickney (1984), Ofojekwu and Ejike (1984); Dicalcium phosphate:Hilton, Cho and Slinger (1981), NRC (1983), Reinitz et al., (1978), Robinnete (1984), Robinson (1986); Hydrolysedfeather meal: Andrews and Stickney (1972), Cho (1980), Hilton, Cho and Slinger (1981), Lee (1981), Metailler,Cadena Roa and Person Le Ruyet (1983), Tacon et al., (1983a); Fish meal - Andrews and Stickney (1972), Campbell(1985), Cho (10), Cadena Roa et al., (1982), Crampton (1985), Cuzon (1985), Fowler (1980), Hilton and Slinger(1983), Hilton, Cho and Slinger (1981), Higgs et al., (1982), Metailler, Menu and Moriniere (1981), Metailler,Cadena Roa, and Person-Le Ruyet (1983), Niamat and Jafri (1984), NRC (1983), Lee (1981), Piper et al., (1982),Reinitz and Hitzel (1980), Reinitz et al., (1978), Reinitz (1983), Robinette (1984), Robinson (1986), Robinson,Miller and Vergara (1985), Merola and Cantelmo (1987), Rumsey and Ketola (1975), Santiago, Banes-Aldaba andSongalia (1983), Tacon et al., (1983, 1983a), Uys and Hecht (1985), Viola and Arieli (1983), Winfree and Stickney(1984), Fish protein concentrate/hydrolysate: Cadena Roa et al., (1982), Metailler, Menu and Moriniere (1981),Metailler, Cadena Roa, and Person-Le Ruyet (1983), Rumsey and Ketola (1975); Groundnut meal - Campbell (1985),Jackson, Capper and Matty (1982), Robinette (1984), Robinson, Wilson and Poe (1980), Robinson et al., 1984);Liver meal: Charlon and Bergot (1984), Tacon (1983), Dabrowski, Bardega and Przedwojski (1983); Meat and Bonemeal: Crampton (1985), Cuzon (1985), Merola and Cantelmo (1987), Robinette (1984), Tacon et al., (1983, 1983a);Poultry by-product meal: Alexis, Papaparaskeva-Papoutsoglou and Theochari (1985), Cho (1980), Crampton (1985),Hilton, Cho and Slinger (1981), Andrews and Stickney (1972), Tacon (1983), Tacon et al., (1983a),Winfree andStickney (1984); Dabrowski and Kozlowska (1981), Hardy and Sullivan (1983), Higgs et al., (1982), Jackson, Capperand Matty (1982), Yurkowski et al., (1978); Rice bran: Andrews and Stickney (1972), Coche (1982), Lee (1981),Niamat and Jafri (1984), NRC (1983), Robinette (1984), Santiago, Banes-Aldaba and Songalia (1983); Shrimp meal:Higgs et al., (1982), Robinson (1986), Santiago, Banes-Aldaba and Songalia (1983), Tacon (1983), Tacon et al.,1983); Sorghum grain meal: NRC (1977, 1983), Viola and Arieli (1983); Soybean meal: Andre and Stickney (1972), Cho (1980), Crampton (1985), Cuzon (1985), Hilton and Slinger (1983), Hilton, Cho and Slinger (1981), Gropp et al.,(1976), Jackson, Capper and Matty (1982), Lee (1981), Lovell (1980), Metailler, Menu and Moriniere (1981),Merola and Cantelmo (1987), NRC (1983), Piper et al., (1982), Niamat and Jafri (1984), Fowler (1980), Reinitz andHitzel (1980), Reinitz et al., (1978), Robinette (1984), Robinson (1986), Robinson, Miller and Vergara (1985),Robinson et al., (1984), Santiago, Banes-Aldaba and Sangalia (1983), Tacon et al., (1983, 1983a), Rumsey and Ketola(1975), Viola and Arieli (1983), Viola et al., (1981, 1982), Winfree and Stickney (1984); Wheat grain meal:Cadena Roa et al., (1982), Crampton (1985), Kaushik and Luquet (1980), Lee (1981), Metailler, Cadena Roa and PersonLe Ruyet (1983), Niamat and Jafri (1984), NRC (1983), Reinitz (1980), Robinette (1984), Robinson et al., (1984),Tacon et al., (1983, 1983a), Viola and Ariele (1983), Winfr and Stickney (1984); Wheat bran: Cadena Roa et al.,(1982), Cuzon (1985), Hilton and Slinger (1983), Merola and Cantelmo (1987), Metailler, Cadena Roa and Person-LeRuyet (1983); Wheat gluten meal: Cho, Cowey and Watanabe (1985), Hilton and Slinger (1983); Wheat middlings:Campbell (1985), Cho (1980), Fowler (1980), Hilton, Cho and Slinger (1981), Hilton and Slinger (1983), Fowler (1980a),Higgs et al., (1982), NRC (1983), Piper et al., (1982), Reinitz (1983), Reinitz and Hitzel (1980), Robinette (1984),Rumsey and Ketola (1975), Tacon et al., (1983, 1983a); Whey powder: Higgs et al., (1982), Piper et al., (1982),Reinitz and Hitzel (1980), Reinitz et al., (1978), Robinette (1984), Rumsey and Ketola (1975), Fowler (1980);Yeast (brewers): Cadena Roa et al., (1982), Cho (1980), Fowler (1980), Higgs et al., (1982), Metailler, Menu andMoriniere (1981), Metailler, Cadena Roa and Person-Le Ruyet (1983), Piper et al., (1982), Reinitz et al., (1978),Cho, Cowey and Watanabe (1985), Reinitz and Hitzel (1980), Rumsey and Ketola (1975), Winfree and Stickney (1984),Tacon et al., (1983, 1983a).

SHRIMP/PRAWNS - Alfalfa meal: Corbin, Fujimoto and Iwai (1983); Blood meal: AQUACOP (1976, 1977, 1983); Cassavameal: AQUACOP (1976), Alikunhi et al., (1980), Kanazawa (1984), Manik (1976); Coconut oilcake: AQUACOP (1976, 1983),Alikunhi et al., (1980), Kanazawa (1984), Lim and Destajo (1979), Manik (1976), Thong (1985); Corn grain, meal:AQUACOP (1976), Balazas, Ross and Brooks (1973), Corbin, Fujimoto and Iwai (1983), Pascual (1983); Dicalcium phosphate:Cuzon et al., (1981, 1982), Lim and Destajo (1979), NRC (1983); Distillers dried solubles: Cuzon et al., (1982);Fish meal: AQUACOP (1976, 1983), Balazas, Ross and Brooks (1973), Brand and Colvin (1977), Cuzon et al., (1981, 1982),Fenucci, Lawrence and Zein-Eldin (1981), Fernandez and Puchal (1979), Kanazawa (1984), Lim and Destajo (1979), Meyersand Zein-Eldin (19), Meyers, Butler and Hastings (1972), Manik (1976), Manik, Djunaidah and Tiensongrusmee (1980),Murai, Sumalangkay and Pascual (1981), New and Singholka (1982), NRC (1983), Pascual (1983), Pascual, Bandonil andDestajo (1978), Thong (1985), Vogt, Quinitio and Pascual (1986), Fenucci and Zein-Eldin (1976); Fish proteinconcentrate/hydrolysate: AQUACOP (1977, 1983), Brand and Colvin (1977), Cuzon et al., (1981, 1982), Deshimaru andShigueno (1972), Fenucci, Lawrence and Zein-Eldin (1981), Meyers and Zein-Eldin (1972), Meyers, Butler and Hastings(1972); Groundnut meal: AQUACOP (1976, 1977), Alikunhi et al., (1980), New and Singholka (1982); Meat and Bone meal:AQUACOP (1977, 1983), Corbin, Fujimoto and Iwai (1983), Cuzon et al., (1981); Alikunhi et al., (1980), Fenucci andZein-Eldin (1976), Fenucci, Lawrence and Zein-Eldin (1981), Kanazawa (1984), Lim and Destajo (1979), Manik (1976),Meyers and Zein-Eldin (1972), Murai, Sumalangkay and Pascual (1981), New and Singholka (1982), NRC (19), Pascual(1983), Pascual, Bandonil and Destajo (1978), Vogt, Quinitio and Pascual (1986); Shrimp meal: AQUACOP (1977, 1983), Alikunhi et al., (1980), Balazas, Ross and Brooks (1973), Brand and Colvin (1977), Cuzon et al., (1981, 1982),Fenucci and Zein-Eldin (1976), Fenucci, Lawrence and Zein-Eldin (1981), Deshimaru and Shigueno (1972), Lim andDestajo (1979), Manik (1976), Manik, Djunaidah and Tiensongrusmee (1980), Meyers and Zein-Eldin (1972), Meyers,Butler and Hastings (1972), Murai, Sumalangkay and Pascual (1981), New and Singholka (1982), NRC (1983),Pascual (1983), Pascual, Bandonil and Destajo (1978), Thong (1985), Vogt, Quinition and Pascual (1986); Squidmeal: Deshimaru and Shigueno (1972), Fenucci, Lawrence and Zein-Eldin (1981), Fenucci and Zein-Eldin (1976),Fernandez and Puchal (1979), Manik, Djunaidah and Tiensongrusmee (1980); Soybean meal: AQUACOP (1977, 1983),Balazas, Ross and Brooks (1973), Brand and Colvin (1977), Cuzon et al., (1981, 1982), Corbin, Fujimoto and Iwai(1983), Fenucci, Lawrence and Zein-Eldin (1981), Kanazawa (1984), Manik (1976), Manik, Djunaidah and Tiensongrusmee(1980), Meyers Butler and Hastings (1972), Murai, Sumalangkay and Pascual (1981), New and Singholka (1982),NRC (1983), Pascual, Bandonil and Destajo (1978), Thong (1985), Vogt, Quinitio and Pascual (1986); Wheat grain,meal: Brand and Colvin (1977), Balazas, Ross and Brooks (1973), Lim and Destajo (1979), Manik, Djunaidah andTiensongrusmee (1980), NRC (1983), Pascual (1983), Pascual, Bandonil and Destajo (1978), Thong (1985), Vogt,Quinitio and Pascual (1986); Wheat bran: Pascual (1983); Wheat gluten meal: AQUACOP (1977, 1983), Cuzon et al.,(1981, 1982), Deshimaru and Shigueno (1972), Kanazawa (1984); Whey/skim milk powder: AQUACOP (1976); Yeast(brewers): AQUACOP (1976, 1977, 1983), Balazas, Ross and Brooks (1973), Cuzon et al., (1981, 1982), Deshimaruand Shigueno (1972), Fenucci, Lawrence and Zein-Eldin (1981), Meyers, Butler and Hastings (1972).

² Includes the freshwater prawn Macrobrachium rosenbergii.

³ Blood meal protein is a rich source of leucine, valine and histidine, but is very deficient in isoleucine andmethionine; because of the antagonistic effect of excess leucine on isoleucine, animals fed high dietary levelsof blood meal may suffer from an isoleucine deficiency.

⁴ Degossypolized meal should be used.

⁵ Hydrolysed feather meal protein is a rich source of cystine but is deficient in methionine, lysine and histidine;because of the antagonistic effect of excess cystine on methionine, animals fed high dietary levels of feathermeal may suffer from an methionine deficiency.

⁶ The decorticated material should be used and give negative results for aflatoxin (ie. mycotoxin contamination).

⁷ May vary in composition and quality (ie. ash, methionine and lipid content), and hence should only be usedat low to moderate dietary inclusion levels.

⁸ May vary in composition and quality (ie. protein and lipid content), and hence should only be used at low tomoderate dietary inclusion levels.

⁹ Varieties containing low levels of glucosinolates and erucic acid (anti-nutritional factors) should be used.

¹⁰ Low tannin variety should be used.

Table 5. Examples of complete diet formulations which have been tested and proven under practical intensive rearing conditions

PRACTICAL COMPLETE DIETS - CARNIVOROUS FISH

1. Rainbow trout (Salmo gairdneri) - Dry diet, crumbled/pelleted

¹ Formulation VIT-8204; g vitamin/kg vitamin premix: vitamin A (as acetate) 500000 IU, vitamin D₃ 300000 IU,vitamin E (d1-alpha-tocopherol acetate) 10000 IU, vitamin K (menadione sodium bisulphate) 3g, vitamin B₁₂0.003g, ascorbic acid 40g, biotin 0.05g, folic acid 1g, niacin 20g, pantothenic acid (as D calcium salt) 15g,pyridoxine (as HCl salt) 3g, riboflavin 5g, thiamine (as HCl salt) 3g, choline chloride (50%) 300g, wheatmiddlings added in sufficient quantities to bring the total premix to 1000g.

² Formulation MIN-8204; g mineral/kg mineral premix: copper (as CuSO₄.5H₂O) 2.5g, iron (FeSO₄.7H₂O) 6.3g,manganese (MnSO₄.H₂O) 8.6g, iodine (KI) 0.8g, zinc (ZnSO₄.H₂O) 14.4g, salt (NaCl, 99%) 300g, wheat middlingsadded in sufficient quantities to bring the total premix to 1000g.

Source: Cho, Cowey and Watanabe (1985)

2. Rainbow trout (S. gairdneri) - Dry diet, crumbled/pelleted

¹ Vitamin premix; mg vitamin/kg finished feed: D calcium pantothenate 105.8mg, pyridoxine 30.9mg, riboflavin52.9mg, niacinamide 220.5mg, folacin 8.8mg, thiamine mononitrate 35.3mg, biotin 0.35mg, vitamin B₁₂ 0.02mg,menadione sodium bisulphite complex 11mg, vitamin E 353 IU, vitamin D₃ 441 IU, vitamin A (palmitate) 6615 IU
² Mineral premix; % composition of mineral premix : ZnSO₄.H₂O 41.95%, MnSO₄.H₂O 47.02%, FeSO₄.7H₂O 10.06%,KIO₃ 0.18%, CuSO₄ 0.79%
NA - Data not available

Source: Reinitz (1980) - SD9 and GR3; Reinitz and Hitzel (1980) - PR9

3. Rainbow trout (S. gairdneri) / Atlantic salmon (Salmo salar) - Moist diet, pelleted

¹ Fresh casein preserved with 2% w/w formic acid or 2% w/w concentrated sulphuricacid + 0.5% formic acid w/w
² Fresh cattle blood preserved with 1 – 1.3% w/w formic acid (87%)
³ Binder meal composition (%): fish meal 48%, raw wheat 24%, cooked wheat 24%, and 4% premix containing binder,vitamins, minerals and canthaxanthin. Supplied/kg binder meal: vitamin A 5000 IU, vitamin D₃ 1000 IU, vitaminK₃ 20mg, DL-alpha-tocopherol acetate 120 mg, thiamine 20 mg, riboflavin 50 mg, pyridoxine 30 mg, calciumpantothenate 80 mg, niacin 300 mg, folic acid 10 mg, biotin 400 mg* (value reported for biotin seams to beexceptionally high; should be about 0.4 mg), choline chloride 1200 mg, inositol 200 mg, ascorbic acid 400 mg,FeSO₄ 80 mg, MnO 80 mg, ZnO 100 mg, CuO 16 mg, CaI₂ 3 mg, Na₂SeO₃ 0.2 mg, canthaxanthin 70 mg

Source: Asgard and Austreng (1985) - Diet 1 and 2; Asgard and Austreng (1986) - Diet 1 and 3

4. Chinook salmon (Oncorhynchus tshawytscha) - Dry diet, crumbled/pelleted

¹ Vitamin premix; mg vitamin/kg dry diet: vitamin A acetate 7030 IU, vitamin D₃ 469 IU, D or DL-alpha-tocopherolacetate 375 IU, menadione sodium bisulphite complex 11.7mg, D-calcium pantothenate 112.4mg, pyridoxine HCl 32.8mg,riboflavin 56.2mg, niacin 234.3mg, folic acid 9.37mg, thiamine mononitrate 37.5mg, biotin 0.37mg, vitamin B₁₂ 23μg,ascorbic acid 703mg.

² Vitamin + mineral premix; mg/kg dry diet: vitamin A acetate 7269 IU, vitamin D₃ 484 IU, DL-alpha-tocopherol acetate773 IU, manadione sodium bisulphite complex 12.1mg, D-calcium pantothenate 87.2mg, pyridoxine HCl 48.4mg, riboflavin58.1mg, niacin 606mg, folic acid 9.69mg, thiamine mononitrate 48.4mg, biotin 0.49mg, vitamin B₁₂ 24.2ug, inositol436mg, 50% choline chloride 1938mg, ascorbic acid (ethocel coated) 383mg, NaCl 5444mg, Mn (as MnSO₄.H₂O) 75.2mg,I (as KI) 3.54mg, Fe (as Fe₂O₃) 21.8mg, Cu (as CuO) 3.57mg, Zn (as ZnO) 1.09mg, Co (as CoCl₂.6H₂O) 0.22mg

³ To contain NaCl, iron (as ferrous carbonate), manganese (as manganese oxide), copper (as copper oxide), cobalt(as cobalt carbonate), iodine (as ethylene diamine dihydriodide), zinc (as zinc oxide), plus cane molasses and red ironoxide (for colouring).

⁴ Soy oil, once refined, 0.01% BHA or BHT added.

⁵ Fish oil, soy oil or lecithin stabilized with 0.3% BHT, BHA or ethoxyquin (soy lecithin may be used at not more than 2% of the diet).

⁶ Salmon oil, stabilized with 0.33% BHA-BHT (1:1)

Source: Higgs et. al., (1982)

5. Salmon (Oncorhynchus sp) - Moist diet, crumbled/pelleted

¹ Wet fish mixture for modified Oregon moist diet given as 50% Tuna viscera (without heads and gills, butwith livers) and 50% whole Turbot (Altheresthes stomias)

² Vitamin supplement mg vitamin/kg dry diet: ascorbic acid 890mg, calcium pantothenate 100mg, pyridoxine 18mg,riboflavin 50mg, niacin 200mg, folic acid 7mg, thiamine 24mg, biotin 0.6mg, inositol 600mg, vitamin B₁₂ 0.06mg,menadione sodium bisulphite 12mg, alpha-tocopherol acetate 500 IU

³ Guaranteed minimum composition/lb., ascorbic acid 24g, biotin 16mg, vitamin B₁₂ 1.6mg, alpha-tocopherolacetate 13,400 IU, folic acid 190mg, menadione 160mg, niacin 5mg, inositol 15g, D-pantothenic acid 2.8g,pyridoxine 470mg, riboflavin 1.4g, thiamine 630mg.

⁴ BHA 20%, BHT 20%, herring oil 60%.

⁵ Dry matter composition given as 50–52% crude protein and 15–18% lipid

Source: Orme (1978) and Ketola (1978) - Oregon moist pellet; Crawford et. al., (1973) - Modified Oregon pellet

6. Dover sole (Solea vulgaris) - Expanded rehydratable crumble

¹ Expanded diet contains (g/100g); fish meal (Denmark, 71% protein) 46.3%, fish protein concentrate (80%protein) 9.1%, blood meal (85% protein) 5.0%, feather meal (83% protein) 3.6%, brewers yeast (47% protein)2.4%, corn gluten 8.2%, wheat 4%, wheat germ 2.6%, wheat bran 2.2%, wheat shorts 2.1%, alfalfa meal 1.4%,methionine 0.6%, prescooked starch 12.5%. The basal diet is produced by expansion-cooking, and thereafterground to small sized crumbles.

² Vitamin mixture contains Protector vitamin premix 75%, choline chloride 12.1%, inositol 12.1%, biotin 0.1%,pyridoxine 0.1%, ascorbic acid 0.6%

³ Protector vitamin premix (mg/kg); vitamin A 2,000,000 IU, vitamin D₃ 200,000 IU, vitamin E 3750mg, vitaminK₃ 200mg, ascorbic acid 15,000mg, thiamine 450mg, riboflavin 2500mg, pyridoxine 400mg, pantothenic acid 5000mg,niacin 10,000mg, biotin 0.5mg, folic acid 425mg, vitamin B₁₂ lmg, para aminobenzoic acid 1,500mg, choline37,500mg, inositol 20,000mg

⁴ Oil mixture contains corn oil 51.3%, cod liver oil 31% and soy lecithin 17.7%

⁵ Chemical attractant mixture contains glycine betaine HCl 59%, inosine 1.6%, glycine 18.5%, L-alanine 10.4%,L-glutamic acid 7.1%, L-arginine 3.4%.

⁶ Expanded crumbles are mixed with 15–20% water containing the dissolved chemical attractant substances and thenwith the oil-vitamin mixture; the result is a soft textured crumble which is both palatable (ie. attractive),durable, and more resistant to vitamin and protein leaching.

Source: Metailler, Cadena-Roa and Person-Le Ruyet (1983).

7. Marine fish (general)

¹ All ingredients must be ground finer than 0.354mm and not flame dried

² Alginates, gelatin or other binder agents may replace 3–5% maize or cassava meal

³ Fish oil should be stabilized with 500ppm antioxidant

⁴ Vitamin premix 8004 to contain (g)/kg premix: vitamin A acetate 500,000 IU, vitamin D₃ 200,000 IU,DL-alpha-tocopherol acetate 20,000 IU, menadione sodium bisulphate 3g, thiamine HCl 3g, riboflavin 5g,D-calcium pantothenate 15g, biotin 0.04g, folic acid lg, vitamin B₁₂ 0.003g, niacin 20g, pyridoxine HCl3g, ascorbic acid 30g, maize or cassava meal added to bring total premix to 1000g

⁵ Fish oil sprayed on the granules or pellets as a fine mist (after pelleting)

⁶ 10% water from fresh liver to be evaporated after pelleting

Source: Cho (1980)

PRACTICAL COMPLETE DIETS - OMNIVOROUS FISH

8. Tambaqui (Colossoma macropomum) - Dry diet, pelleted

¹ Vitamin premix; mg vitamin/kg feed: vitamin A 6000 IU, vitamin D₃ 1000 IU, vitamin E 60 IU,vitamin K₃ 12mg, vitamin C 500mg, thiamine 24mg, riboflavin 24mg, pantothenic acid 60mg, niacin120mg, pyridoxine 24mg, biotin 0.24mg, folic acid 6mg, choline chloride 550mg, vitamin B₁₂ 0.024mg,inositol 100mg, BHT 50mg

² Mineral premix; mg mineral/kg feed: Fe 50mg, Cu 3mg, Mn 20mg, Zn 30mg, I 0.1mg, Co 0.01mg, Se 0.1mg

Source: Merola and Cantelmo (1987)

9. Tilapia (Oreochromis niloticus/O. aureus) - dry diet, pellet

¹ During the commercial feeding trials of Dickson (1987) the addition of a dietary vitamin premix wasfound to have no beneficial effect on the growth of fish under intensive production conditions. Thevitamin premix employed contained (mg vitamin/kg premix): vitamin A 200,000 IU, vitamin D₃ 1,000,000 IU,vitamin E 10,000 IU, vitamin K 1,000mg, vitamin B1 1000mg, vitamin B2 2000mg, vitamin B6 1000mg, vitaminB₁₂ 100mg, nicotinic acid 2800mg, pantothenic acid 2500mg, choline chloride 50,000mg, vitamin C 125,000mg,folic acid 600mg, biotin 100mg, inositol 20,000mg and antioxidant 20,000mg

² During the commercial intensive cage rearing trials of Campbell (1985) no dietary vitamin fortificationwas deemed necessary due to the presence of natural food organisms within the water body

Source: Dickson (1987) - Diets 1, 2 & 3; Campbell (1985) - Diet 4

10. African catfish (Clarias lazera/gariepinus) - dry/moist diet, granule/pellet

¹ Total vitamin composition of dry larval diet reported as (mg vitamin/kg diet) - vitamin A 65,000 IU,vitamin D 12,000 IU, vitamin E 943 IU, vitamin K 100mg, thiamine 0.036mg, riboflavin 0.071mg, pyridoxine0.019mg, pantothenic acid 0.445mg, biotin 0.011mg, choline 8.5mg, vitamin B₁₂ 0.2mg, niacin 0.59mg,ascorbic acid 1.5mg, folic acid 0.013mg, inositol 2.86mg

² Vitamin premix composition (mg vitamin/kg premix) : vitamin A 4,800,000 IU, vitamin D₃ 800,000 IU, vitamin E4800mg, vitamin K 800mg, thiamine 600mg, riboflavin 2800mg, vitamin B₃ 4800mg (?), pyridoxine 600mg, vitamin B₁₂4mg, folic acid 200mg, cobalt 160mg, copper 1200mg, iron 9000mg, iodine 480mg, magnesium 2730mg, manganese 28000mg,zinc 20000mg

³ Fish oil:soybean oil mixture added as 6% of total dry weight of feed (after formulation)

⁴ Methionine supplement to contain 150mg/kg pure methionine

Source: Uys and Hecht (1985) - Larval diet; Janssen (1985) - Fingerling/Brood/Grower diets

11. Channel catfish (Ictalurus punctatus) - dry diet, crumble/pellet

¹ Vitamin and mineral premix formulated to meet or exceed NRC (1977) recommendations

² Vitamin premix to provide/kg feed: vitamin A 4000 IU, vitamin D₃ 2000 IU, niacin 88mg, D-pantothenic acid 35mg,vitamin B₁₂ 0.009mg, vitamin E 55 IU, riboflavin 13mg, choline chloride 550mg, manadione sodium bisulphate complex10mg, pyridoxine HCL 10mg, thiamine mononitrate 10mg, folic acid 2mg, ethoxyquin (antioxidant) 138mg, ascorbicacid 178.5mg.

³ Vitamin premix to provide/kg feed: vitamin A 4400 IU, vitamin D₃ 2200 IU, vitamin E 55 IU, vitamin K 11mg,thiamine 11mg, riboflavin 13.2mg, pyridoxine 11mg, pantothenic acid 35.2mg, nicotinic acid 88mg, folic acid2.2mg, vitamin B₁₂ 0.09mg, choline chloride (70%) 550mg

⁴ Trace mineral premix to provide/kg feed: manganese 86.5mg, iodine 1mg, copper 4mg, zinc 66.5mg, iron 33mg,cobalt 0.7mg

⁵ Trace mineral premix to provide/kg feed at 0.05% level: zinc 150mg, manganese 25mg, copper 4mg, iron 20mg,iodine 1.5mg, and selenium 0.1mg

⁶ Ethylcellulose coated

Source: Winfree and Stickney (1984) - Diets 1, 2 and 3; Robinette (1984) - Diets 4, 6 & 7 Mgbenka and Lovell (1984) - Diet 5; Diets 5, 6 and 7 are formulations for expanded diets.

12. Common carp (Cyprinus carpio) - dry diet, pellet

¹ Growth performance of fish fed diet 2 can be improved to that of diet 1 by spraying 5% oil (poultry oilor acidulated soybean soapstock) onto the pellet

² Constant content per kg pelleted feed: vitamin A 8000 IU, vitamin D 900 IU, vitamin E 2 IU, vitamin K4mg, riboflavin 3.6mg, niacin 20mg, choline chloride 160mg, pantothenic acid 7mg, pyridoxine 0.2mg, vitaminB₁₂ 5μg, Mn 70mg, Zn 60mg, Fe 20mg, Cu 2mg, I 1mg, Co 0.2mg. Variable ingredients: bentonite, dicalciumphosphate (Note: premix employed is essentially a vitamin premix for poultry)

Source: Viola et. al., (1982)

PRACTICAL COMPLETE DIETS - CARNIVOROUS/OMNIVOROUS SHRIMP AND PRAWNS

13. Kuruma shrimp (Penaeus japonicus) - dry diet, pellet

¹ Lactic acid yeast obtained by changing lactose under action of Kluyveromyces lactis and fragilis (Saccharomyces)

² Vitamin premix supplies mg % diet: thiamine HCl 5mg, riboflavin 40mg, pyridoxine HCl 10mg, vitamin B₁₂ 0.01mg,nicotinic acid 75mg, calcium pantothenate 50mg, biotin 1mg, inositol 200mg, folic acid 3mg, choline chloride 250mg,p. amino benzoic acid 40mg, vitamin K 2.5mg, vitamin E 25mg, vitamin C (Ca salt) 500mg, vitamin A 4000 IU,vitamin D₃ 250 IU, cholesterol 1250mg

³ Protector vitamin premix: vitamin content/kg diet 3 - vitamin A 46,165 IU, vitamin D₃ 12,000 IU, vitaminE 74mg, vitamin C 3089mg, thiamine 29.5mg, riboflavin 55mg, pyridoxine 14mg, calcium pantothenate 100mg,vitamin pp (niacin) 120mg, vitamin H (biotin) 450ug, inositol 4000mg, choline chlorhydrate 3368mg (fromchemical analysis of diet Cuzon et. al., 1982)

⁴ KHPO₄ 10%, Ca₃(PO₄)₂ 15%, Ca-lactate 75%

Source: Deshimaru and Shigeno (1972) - Diet 1; Cuzon et. al., (1981) - Diet 2; Cuzon et. al., (1982) - Diet 3

14. Giant tiger shrimp (P. monodon) - dry diet, pellet

¹ Allowance provided for destruction of heat labile vitamins during diet preparation (steaming and drying).Vitamin/mineral composition/kg premix: vitamin A 1,760,000 USP units, vitamin D₃ 660,000 USP units, vitaminE 770 IU, vitamin K 120mg, thiamine 440mg, vitamin B₁₂ 4400ug, niacin 6000mg, calcium pantothenate 1200mg,choline chloride 44,000mg, folic acid 22mg, FeSO₄ 8800mg, KI 440mg, CaCO₃/PO₄/SO₄ 120,000mg, CoSO₄ 44mg,CuSO₄ 440mg, MgSO₄ 6600mg, KSO₄ 66mg, ZnSO₄ 17600mg, MnSO₄ 12000mg, L-lysine HCl 6600mg, Methionine 8800mg,(V-22 is a vitamin-mineral premix for poultry)

² To supply/kg dry diet: thiamine 30mg, riboflavin 80mg, pyridoxine 40mg, vitamin B12 0.1mg, niacin 400mg,pantothenic acid acid 200mg, biotin 2mg, inositol 600mg, folic acid 10mg, choline chloride 5000mg, para aminobenzoic acid 150mg, ascorbic acid 500mg, vitamin A (20,000 IU) 40, vitamin D₃ 10mg, vitamin E 150mg, vitaminK 30mg, BHT 10mg, finely ground corn meal 2747.9g

³ To supply/kg dry diet: K₂HPO₄ 1g, NaH₂PO₄ 2.15g, Ca(H₂PO₄)_4. H₂O 2.65g, CaCO₃ 1.05g, calcium lactate 1.65g,KCL 0.28g, MgSO₄.7H₂O 1.0g, Ferric citrate 0.12g, AlCl₃.6H₂O 0.0024g, ZnSO₄.7H₂O 0.0476g, MnSO₄.6H₂O 0.0107g,CuCl 0.0015g, KI 0.0023g, CaCL₃.6H₂O 0.0140g, finely ground corn meal 0.0215g

Source: Vogt, Quinitio and Pascual (1986) - Diet 1 and 2; Pascual (1983) - Diet 3; Lim and Destajo (1979) - 4

15. Giant tiger shrimp (P. monodon) - dry diet, pellets

¹ No. 1 Protector vitamin premix provides/kg diet: vitamin A 80,000 IU, vitamin D₃ 8,000 IU, vitamin E 150mg,vitamin K 8mg, vitamin C 600mg, thiamine 18mg, riboflavin 16mg, niacin 400mg, calcium pantothenate 200mg,pyridoxine HCl 16mg, folic acid 17mg, vitamin B12 0.04mg, biotin 0.02mg, choline chloride 1500mg, inositol800mg, para amino benzoic acid 60mg (premix used by AQUACOP, 1978, for P. merguiensis; composition of premixused in present formulation not cited)

² Premix supplies/kg diet: thiamine HCL 120 mg, riboflavin 40 mg, pyridoxineHCL 120mg, nicotinic acid 150mg,calcium pantothenate 100mg, folic acid 5mg, biotin 1mg, Vitamin B12 0.02mg, inositol 400mg, choline chloride1200mg, Na-ascorbate 5000mg, α-tocopherol 200mg, menadione 40mg, Vitamin A 5000 IU, Vitamin D3 1000 IU, Zn40mg, Mn 20mg, Cu 4mg, I 0.8mg, Co 0.12mg

³ Author cites that wheat gluten would be a better binding agent; Kanazawa (1984)

Source: AQUACOP (1983) - Diet 1 & 2; Kanazawa (1984) - Diet 3 (also fed as a complete diet for P. merguiensis, AQUACOP (1977)

16. Shrimp (P. californiensis) - dry diet, crumble

¹ To supply/kg finished feed: vitamin A 201,000 IU, vitamin D₃ 2000 IU, vitamin E 19.4 IU, menadione SBC 50mg,thiamine mononitrate 30mg, riboflavin 2.7mg, niacin 18mg, pyridoxine HCl 30mg, D-pantothenic acid 90mg, folicacid 50mg, vitamin B12 0.5ug, biotin 50ug, inositol 1100mg, ascorbic acid 1000mg

² Ground diet mixture bound in freshwater solution of alginic acid, the reaction being regulated by theaddition of 1% sodium hexametaphosphate

Source: Brand and Colvin (1977)

17. Giant river prawn (Macrobrachium rosenbergii) - dry diet, pellet

¹ Mineral premix contained: K₂HPO₄ 30%, KCl 9.4%, MgSO₄ 14.8%, CaHPO₄.2H₂O 27.4%, FeCL₃ 1.4%, MnSO₄.7H₂O0.2%, CaCO₃ 16.8%

² Vitamin premix composition: vitamin A 2,750,000 IU, vitamin D₃ 550,000 IU, vitamin E 25,000 IU, vitaminK₃ 5000mg, choline, 250,000mg, niacin 50,000mg, riboflavin 10,000mg, pyridoxine 10,000mg, thiamine 10,000mg,calcium pantothenate 25,000mg, biotin 50mg, folacin 2500mg, vitamin B12 10mg, ascorbic acid 50,000mg (dosageper tonne of feed is 2kg or 0.2%; premix is based on NRC (1983) warm water fish requirements

³ No details of composition given

Source: Thong (1985) - Diet 1; Manik (1976) - Diet 2 & 3; Boonyaratpalin and New (1982) - Diet 4

PURIFIED COMPLETE EXPERIMENTAL TEST DIETS - FISH AND SHRIMP

18. Fish standard reference diets

¹ Diet preparation: dissolve gelatin in cold water. Heat with stirring on water bath to 80°C. Remove from heat.Add with stirring - dextrin, casein, minerals, oils and vitamins as temperature decreases. Mix well to 40°C.Pour into containers; move to refrigerator to harden. Remove from trays and store in sealed containers inrefrigerator until used. Consistency of diet adjusted by amount of water in final mix and length and strengthof beating.

² Adjust protein and lipid levels if necessary (depending on fish species). Steam pellet at 5–10 psi withoutwater

³ Marine oil with 0.05% antioxidant (or other oils as required)

⁴ Supplement includes 0.5% methionine, 1% arginine and 0.5% starch

⁵ Vitamin mixture provides/kg dry diet: alpha cellulose 80g (as filler; delete 20g cellulose and add 20g ofcarboxymethylcellulose binder for preliminary feeding), choline chloride 5g, inositol 2g, L-ascorbic acid 1g, nicotinic acid 750mg, calcium pantothenate 500mg, riboflavin 200mg, thiamine HCl 50mg, pyridoxine HCl 50mg,menadione 40mg, folic acid 15mg, vitamin B12 11mg (add vitamin B12 in water during final mixing), biotin 5mg,alpha-tocopherol acetate 400mg (dissolve tocopherol in oil mix)

⁶ Vitamin mixture provides/kg dry diet: vitamin A acetate 7000 IU, vitamin D₃3000 IU, vitamin E 200 IU,vitamin K 50mg, thiamine HCl 40mg, riboflavin 60mg, D-calcium pantothenate 200mg, biotin 0.5mg, folic acid20mg, vitamin B12 0.2mg, niacin 300mg, pyridoxine HCl 40mg, inositol 500mg, ascorbic acid 500mg, cholinecitrate 6000mg, alpha cellulose or starch in sufficient quantities to bring the total premix to 30g

⁷ Vitamin mixture should meet or exceed levels presented by NRC (1983) and allow for processing and storagelosses

⁸ Mineral premix contains/100g premix: calcium biphosphate 13.58g. calcium lactate 32.70g, ferric citrate2.97g, magnesium sulphate 13.20g, potassium phosphate (dibasic) 23.98g, sodium biphosphate 8.72g, sodiumchloride 4.35g, AlCL₃.6H₂O 0.015g, ZnSO₄.H₂O 0.30g, CuCl 0.01g, MnSO₄.H₂O 0.08g, KI 0.015g, CoCl₂.6H₂O 0.10g

⁹ Mineral premix provides/kg dry diet: CaHPO₄.2H₂O 30g, CaCO₃ 3g, NaCl 15g, K₂SO₄ 20g, MgSO₄ 10g, FeSO₄.7H₂O700mg, MnSO₄.H₂O 300mg, ZnSO₄.H₂O 550mg, CuSO₄.5H₂O 160mg, CoCl₂.6H₂O 26mg, KI 15mg, Na₂SeO₃ 2.5mg, alphacellulose or starch added in sufficient quantities to bring the total premix to 80g

¹⁰ Mineral mixture of Williams and Briggs (1963) supplemented with cobalt chloride (1mg/kg diet), aluminiumpotassium sulphate (0.7mg/kg diet), and sodium selenite (0.05mg/kg diet); NRC (1983)

Source: Castell and Tiews (1980) - H440 Standard reference diet which has proven satisfactory for use with salmonids, char, catfish, carp, sea bream, sea bass, perch, red fish, pompano, red snapper, black cod and black bass. Cho, Cowey and Watanabe (1985) - C102 Test Diet. NRC (1983) - 36% crude protein diet containing 2.9 kcal digestible energy/g; semi-purified test diet for warmwater finfish.

19. Shrimp/crustacean standard reference diets

¹ Prepared as a moist diet by adding 3g agar and 130ml water/100g dry diet.

² Dry diet contains 38.1% crude protein, 10.5% lipid and 6.5% ash (dry weight basis).

³ Dry diet contains 38.8% crude protein, 12.9% lipid and 3.7% ash (dry weight basis).

⁴ Vitamin premix provides mg/100g dry diet: p-amino benzoic acid 10mg,biotin 0.4mg, inositol 400mg, nicotinic acid 40mg, calcium pantothenate 60mg, pyridoxine HCl 12mg, riboflavin8mg, thiamine HCl 4mg, menadione 4mg, Beta carotene 9.6mg, alpha tocopherol 20mg, vitamin B12 0.08mg, vitaminD₃ 1.2mg, sodium ascorbate 2000mg, folic acid 0.8mg, choline chloride 120mg.

⁵ Vitamin premix composition (%): thiamine HCl 0.32%, riboflavin 0.72%, niacinamide 2.6%, D-biotin 0.008%, calcium pantothenate 1.43%, pyridoxineHCl 0.24%, folic acid 0.097%, manadione 0.08%, vitamin B12 0.27%, inositol 12.7%, vitamin D₃ (850,000 IU/g)0.002%, vitamin A acetate (500,000 IU/g) 0.51%, ascorbic acid 6.1%, BHA 0.076%, BHT 0.076%, para amino benzoicacid 2.02%, cellufil 72.77%.

⁶ Vitamin premix composition (%): thiamine HCl 0.5%, riboflavin 0.8%, niacinamide2.6%, D-biotin 0.1%, calcium pantothenate 1.5%, pyridoxine HCl 0.3%, folic acid 0.5%, vitamin B12 0.1%, inositol18.1%, ascorbic acid 12.1%, BHA 0.1%, para amino benzoic acid 3%, cellufil 60.3%.

⁷ Mineral mix provides g/100g dry diet: K₂HPO₄ 2g, Ca₃(PO₄)₂ 2.72g, MgSO₄.7H₂O 3.04g, NaH₂PO₄.2H₂O 0.79g.

⁸ Modified Bernhart-Tomarelli salt mixture.

Source: Kanazawa, Teshima and Tokiwa (1977) - semipurified test diet for Penaeid shrimp Castell (1986) - crab protein and Bodega Bay reference diets for crustaceans.