ABH - Anaplasma, Babesia and Heartwater vaccines
ADRI - Animal Disease Research Institute
CEO - Chief Executive Officer
CTA - Chief Technical Adviser
DANIDA - Danish International Development Agency
ECF - East Coast Fever
GLP - Good Laboratory Practices
GMP - Good Manufacturing Practices
IFAT - Immunofluorescence antibody test
ILRAD - International Laboratory for Research on Animal Diseases
ILRI - International Livestock Research Institute
NPC - National Project Coordinator
NTC - National Technical Committee
OVI - Onderstepoort Veterinary Institute
RCC - Regional Consultative Committee
SHDDP - Southern Highlands Dairy Development Project
TAC - Technical Advisory Committee
TBD - Tick-Borne Diseases
TCP - Technical Cooperation Programme
VPC - Vaccine Production Centre
Project GCP/RAF/299/NET supported activities in Malawi and Tanzania within the FAO Multi-Donor Regional Programme on the Control of Ticks and Tick-borne Diseases (TBD) in East, Central and Southern Africa. The support in Malawi was for Vaccine Production Centre (VPC) activities, while in Tanzania it was for immunization against East Coast Fever (ECF).
Progress made in ECF immunization by the regional UNDP-funded project RAF/67/007 in Muguga, Kenya, led Malawi to request support for dealing with the problem. Projects GCP/MLW/018/DEN "East Coast Fever Immunization", TCP/MLW/4505 and TCP/MLW/6652 "Bridging Assistance to East Coast Fever Vaccine Production" constructed a routine diagnostic and research laboratory, established animal accommodation and handling facilities, with a farm for the production of animal feeds, and demonstrated, through experimentation, the applicability of the "infection and treatment" method of immunization in Malawi.
Projects GCP/RAF/247/NET "East Coast Fever Vaccine Production and Quality Control", GCP/RAF/236/DEN and GCP/RAF/259/DEN "Production of Anaplasma, Babesia and Heartwater (ABH) Vaccines for Eastern Africa" were implemented between 1988 and 1991 as follow-up projects. These provided a fellowship, extensive in-service and short-term training to personnel in the region, constructed a purpose-built TBD vaccine production laboratory, refined methods of ECF trivalent vaccine production and administration, provided extensive back-up to national projects in the region and laid the foundations for a centre to coordinate activities concerning ticks and TBD control in the eastern African region.
Noting the progress made, a series of meetings on ticks and TBD control were held in Kampala, Uganda, in 1991. It was recommended that a pre-investment phase be initiated for TBD control by immunization based on quality-controlled vaccines produced on a cost- recovery basis and delivered in a sustainable manner. Formulation missions recommended merging ECF and ABH activities under one management, with three departments dealing with production, quality assurance and veterinary advisory services, respectively.
The goals of the re-organized VPC were to produce vaccines against ECF, babesiosis (Babesia bovis and Babesia bigemina), anaplasmosis and heartwater; produce antigens for the sero-diagnosis of Theileria parva, Anaplasma spp., B. bovis and B. bigemina; produce and provide positive and negative control sera for the sero-diagnosis of the above-mentioned parasites; and provide serological services for those unable to conduct sero-diagnosis in the region.
There are an estimated 15.6 million cattle in Tanzania. Cattle dominate the livestock industry but their contribution to the national gross domestic product is relatively low. The most significant constraints on the development of the livestock industry include poor nutrition and husbandry, genetic limitations, uncoordinated marketing and diseases, especially tick-borne diseases.
In 1976, project URT/72/009 conducted a field trial using the T. parva "Muguga Cocktail" stabilate in the Pugu holding ground outside Dar-es-Salaam. Routine, large-scale use of this method of immunization against ECF was subsequently recommended.
After the collapse of the East African Community in 1977, UN funding ceased. In 1990, immunization activities were resumed with the support of the Danish International Development Agency (DANIDA) in project GCP/URT/098/DEN. This project operated until October 1993. Its immediate objective was to provide Tanzania with a cost-effective method of protecting cattle against TBD by establishing an immunization programme in combination with a reduced tick control programme.
The Project Document for project GCP/RAF/299/NET was signed by FAO and the Tanzanian Government on 28 March 1995. The Tanzanian component of the 12-month project became fully operational with the arrival of the Chief Technical Adviser (CTA) in May 1995. Donor support from the Government of the Netherlands amounted to $US 362 730, for one year. The Tanzanian Government contribution was $US 603 700 for two and a half years. The starting date was revised from 1 January 1995 to 1 May 1995 and the ending date to 1 May 1996. Further revisions extended the duration of the project to 21 months, up to 28 February 1997, with a total donor budget of $US 600 785 for activities in Tanzania.
In Malawi, the Government of the Netherlands contribution was $US 1 528 478 over a period of three years. Expenditure for the component covering vaccine production started on 1 January 1994 and continued until 31 December 1994.
The development objectives of the project were to: increase livestock production for local consumption and reduce meat and milk imports (estimated at $US 700 million annually in sub-Saharan Africa); enhance export opportunities; provide additional income for livestock owners through the sale of surplus products, thus improving the protein diet of the urban poor; reduce the overall regional level of potential environmental contamination with acaricides (including the level of residues in animal products), and, finally, decrease land degradation through improved livestock management systems.
While the overall aim of the project was the development of a cost-effective strategy for the control of ticks and TBD in the region, an immediate objective was to ensure the availability of appropriate methods, including vaccinations, throughout the region by manufacturing sufficient vaccines and testing delivery systems at an economically-sustainable cost.
Thus, in Malawi, the immediate objective of the project was to establish an independent, financially-responsible company capable of manufacturing vaccines and biological materials connected with the diagnosis and prevention of TBD. In Tanzania, it was to evolve an integrated tick and TBD control programme that would be effective, sustainable and environmentally-friendly. This was to be achieved by introducing a sustainable delivery system for TBD immunization; establishing a system for monitoring the effectiveness and socio-economic impact of the immunization programme; and training national staff in the management of these systems.
The project provided consultancies addressing donor concerns and training. It also re-organized TBD vaccine production at the VPC.
Together with project GCP/RAF/291/DEN, GCP/RAF/299/NET supported efforts to comply with Good Manufacturing Practices (GMP) and Good Laboratory Practices (GLP). The support included funding for project experts who supervised and implemented the re-organization. This involved merging the ECF and ABH projects, until then managed separately, and, in some cases, it required alterations to buildings originally built on separate production lines. It also involved re-assignment and re-training of staff for new responsibilities. Three independent departments, Production, Quality Assurance and Product Improvement and Veterinary Advisory Services, were created under unified management within the VPC. The newly re-organized VPC was formally opened by the Minister of Agriculture in Malawi.
Between February and June 1994, the project supported consultancies to provide independent professional assessment of the following donor concerns: the operational capacity of the veterinary sector in the region, communications, market and business development, and the technical and legal aspects of vaccine production. Later in 1994, a donor-initiated consultancy was conducted to advise on transferring responsibilities for the production of ECF vaccines to a sub-contractor.
2.1.2.1 Marketing and business development
The consultant reviewed funding, financial accounting, personnel matters, production, marketing and institutional linkages. He proposed that commercialization proceed through the transformation of the VPC into a corporate body as a limited liability company. The management would comprise a Chief Executive Officer (CEO) and a Vaccine Production Administrator supported by technical heads for Production, Quality Assurance and Veterinary Advisory Services. In addition, the entity would be supported by short-term consultancies on management and marketing; by a Technical Advisory Committee (TAC) made up of experts from relevant scientific institutions which would review acceptability of standards and quality of the products of the VPC, thus enhancing the credibility of its products; and by a Regional Consultative Committee (RCC) comprising governments in the region, the Donor Government, FAO, and VPC representatives to liaise with delivery components.
The consultancy classified countries into immediate and secondary markets and prepared a five-year market profile, a market penetration plan and a distribution management plan. It also identified risks. Tanzania, Uganda, Kenya and Zambia were identified as large markets, while the other countries in the region were considered secondary markets. It was noted that Tanzanian efforts had set firm guidelines for the introduction of the ECF vaccine. The market penetration strategy advocated concentrating resources in Tanzania, Uganda, Kenya and Malawi.
2.1.2.2 Technical review of the vaccine production process
The technical review of vaccine production examined the technical operations and their management. The consultant concluded that the existing infrastructure and operations of the VPC were of a sufficiently high standard to give confidence that the unit could become a reliable supplier of high quality vaccines within two to three years.
2.1.2.3 Legal aspects of vaccine production and use
The legal consultant observed that there was no legislation governing manufacture, distribution and the use of vaccines in Malawi. The consultant recommended that live vaccines be included in the Poisons List of the Pharmacy and Poisons Act and that the Government and national veterinary associations hold a stake in privatized vaccine production companies.
2.1.2.4 Veterinary services structure and privatization
The consultant evaluated the activities for the privatization of the veterinary profession and the Government's commitment to the use of ECF and ABH vaccines. The organization and structure of the veterinary services, regarding their capability in delivering ECF and ABH vaccines, were also assessed, and observations on the operational capacity of the different services were made.
2.1.2.5 Transfer of responsibilities to a sub-contractor
Both FAO and the Government of Malawi were willing to have vaccine production sub-contracted. Those submitting tenders were invited to consider: stabilate production for field use in adequate quantities; quality assurance to satisfy and build confidence in the clientele; marketing to ensure access to the vaccine; after-sales service to monitor vaccine efficacy in the field; and research and development that would increase effectiveness and acceptability of the vaccines.
Although tendering was the preferred procedure for awarding the contract, the consultancy recommended Onderstepoort Veterinary Institute (OVI).
The consultant established that the contractor would appoint all professional, technical and support staff; produce, distribute and market the vaccines; provide after-sales services; assist with administration of research and development activities involving third parties; provide specific training on contract and in-service training for Malawi staff; and have annual plans and budgets approved by a sub-committee appointed by the Programme Steering Committee.
The project consolidated and expanded immunization work started under the project GCP/URT/098/DEN and partially met its immediate objectives.
In Tanzania, 10 348 mainly dairy cattle were immunized and monitored for 30 days, using Batch 010 of the ECF trivalent vaccine supplied by the VPC, Lilongwe, Malawi. This brought the total to 14 628, which represented only 4.5% of the improved high-grade cattle population on the Tanzania mainland.
The number of reactors in the Morogoro and Iringa regions showed a seasonal bias, probably influenced by the concurrent ECF field challenges and the tick control practices of the cattle owner. In July - September tick control was neglected because adult tick activity was minimal, leaving cattle exposed to nymphal challenge. This phenomenon was not experienced in the Lake Victoria zone and in the northern regions. In all the regions, the high or low percentage of reactors recorded was generally linked to the experience of the delivery veterinarians. Areas with a long history of immunization recorded a low number of reactors, while those recently introduced to immunizations recorded the highest number of reactors.
Serology data were collected from the cattle of smallholders, commercial farms and traditional herd owners. Tests were carried out using the immunofluorescence antibody test (IFAT), and with cross-checks carried out using the ELISA tests at ILRI. The pre-immunization sero-prevalence for T. parva (Schizont Ag-IFAT) ranged between 0-40%. Sero-conversion 30 days after immunization ranged between 57-100%. The pre-immunization sera sample results in commercial farms clearly indicated that endemic stability existed for anaplasmosis in most of the farms (21-77%), while the results for babesiosis showed instability (0-36%).
Clinical and seropositive results for Babesia bovis were recorded in the northern and Lake Victoria zone.
Revised tick control regimes were formulated to allow for a reduction in acaricide costs and to ensure a natural increase in immunized animals. Depending on the TBD serology results of a farm, tick control practices and the results of tick collections, a 25-50% reduction was considered safe.
Cattle production data from the monitoring unit of the Southern Highlands Dairy Development Project (SHDDP), for the period 1 July 1991 to 30 June 1995 revealed that: the mortality rate was significantly higher in the non-immunized group, 32.8% against 6.7%; most mortalities in the non-immunized group were due to TBD (81%) with ECF responsible for 76% of deaths recorded; and that the protection level of the trivalent vaccine was estimated at 77-81%.
Considering production parameters (such as lactation, and losses due to death), and treatment costs, a clear cost-benefit ratio of 3:1 was observed for the immunized group. The most important factor influencing this ratio was TBD mortalities.
An outbreak of ECF at Mabuki farm, in the Mwanza region, also gave valuable evidence of the protection provided by ECF immunizations. The farm, with 3 189 cattle, covered 10 200 ha and was divided into six sub-stations. The Zalambi sub-station had 391 cattle which had not been immunized against ECF. A breakdown in dipping at the farm resulted in 114 deaths in the Zalambi herd between January and June 1996. Clinical examinations and laboratory investigations confirmed that ECF was the major cause of mortalities apart from a few cattle suffering from B.bovis infection and some suspected cases of heartwater. None of the other sub-stations suffered from comparable losses in the same period.
Serology revealed very high sero-prevalence of tick-borne diseases (88% T. parva, 95% T.mutans, 85% A. marginale, 28% B. bovis and 77% heartwater) confirming recent challenge by these agents. These observations gave a good indication of the protection provided by the ECF trivalent vaccine.
In a further effort to follow up immunized cattle, collaboration with the International Livestock Research Institute (ILRI) was initiated. Specific data for Tanzania were provided to assist in the development of a "spreadsheet model" for the assessment of the socio-economic importance of theileriosis. The conclusions were not available at the time this report was written.
Laboratory facilities for back-up support to delivery veterinarians were established in all active regions within the limited budget of the project. The Lilongwe laboratory provided the sero-diagnostic materials. Serological monitoring was done on site and IFAT equipment was established in the Mwanza, Iringa and Arusha Veterinary Investigation Centres. Additional assistance was provided by ILRI, which cross-checked sera samples on ELISA, and by the USAID/Heartwater Project, Harare, which processed sera samples for heartwater.
Two consultancies were carried out to train laboratory personnel in TBD diagnosis and to assess the capacity of the Animal Disease Research Institute (ADRI) in Dar-es-Salaam, Tanzania, to spearhead laboratory monitoring throughout Tanzania.
The Tanga region has over 600 000 cattle, most of them indigenous Tanzanian Zebu under traditional management, and about 12 000 grade dairy cattle under zero or semi-zero-grazing management. ECF is the main cause of mortality in high-grade dairy cattle. In order to advocate ECF immunization using the trivalent vaccine, the Tanga Smallholder Dairy Development Project undertook an assessment of the efficacy of the trivalent vaccine; a sero-survey to determine the target groups, and potential risk of other TBDs; the monitoring of previously immunized cattle; and an evaluation of farmers' interest in adopting new control strategies.
In 1995 and 1996, ECF immunization trials were conducted but results were inconclusive. In a third trial, a difference was found in the survival rate between the immunized and the control animals. ECF deaths were higher in the control group, but not significantly different. Thus it was concluded that in Tanga, only partial protection is provided by the trivalent vaccine against local Tanga parasite strains.
A stabilate was produced by ILRI from adult ticks collected from Tanga and characterization of the parasite was carried out. The isolate was considered for local immunization.
Sero-prevalence rate results indicated endemic stability for anaplasmosis in every farming system, an unstable situation for B. bovis and T. mutans in most of the farms, and endemic stability for ECF in the indigenous population and most smallholder farms practising grazing. However, instability was found in the majority of the zero-grazing farms. Results of heartwater serology carried out at the USAID/Heartwater project in Harare, Zimbabwe, indicated that endemic stability existed in most of the regions where Amblyomma spp. are present and that on most of the farms exposure to calves was ensured.
Veterinarians were free to set the final price at farm level, where the price ranges between T Sh 5 500 and 10 000 ($US 9 - 17) per vaccine package. Cost-recovery has been readily accepted in the areas where ECF caused considerable mortalities in the dairy population.
Tick collections made in order to gain additional information, assist in reviewing tick control strategies and assess the risk of other TBDs revealed that tick dynamics differ substantially in the different regions and ecological zones.
The Southern Highlands had one generation of Rhipicephalus appendiculatus with major adult activity between December and May and nymphal activity from April to September, while Amblyomma spp., Boophilus spp. and R. evertsi occurred in low numbers, mainly during the rainy season.
In the Tanga coastal area, there was tick activity throughout the year, with a predominance of Amblyomma spp., lower numbers of R. appendiculatus, with a higher challenge between July and September, and low numbers of Boophilus spp.
Arusha had higher numbers of R. appendiculatus but lower numbers of Amblyomma spp. and Boophilus spp.
Tick collections performed on the smallholder dairy cattle under tick control revealed regular occurrence of Amblyomma spp., low numbers of Boophilus spp. and R. appendiculatus, indicating that tick control was not yet sufficiently effective.
Several Government officials attended project-sponsored workshops and meetings abroad. Project counterparts, field delivery veterinarians and laboratory technicians received formal training in immunization. In addition, a counterpart received extensive training in computer skills and data management while another two received training in all aspects of data handling. Dissemination of information was aimed at raising awareness and understanding of project activities among politicians and the farmers; avenues used included agriculture shows, open days and presentations at the Tanzania Veterinary Association meetings.
Moreover, centres for the regional distribution of available publications relevant to project activities and objectives were set up at Arusha, Mwanza, Tanga and Iringa. Recent articles and publications were circulated on a regular basis and a literature list was made available for reference.
Seventeen veterinarians were actively involved in vaccine delivery and over 150 commercial and smallholder dairy farmers participated in workshops to raise awareness of immunization issues.
A National Technical Committee (NTC) was established to provide technical advisory services to the Ministry of Agriculture and improve, monitor and evaluate the implementation of project activities. Members included: the Assistant Commissioner of Livestock Development, the National Project Coordinator (NPC), regional coordinators, zonal coordinators, representatives of the Sokoine University of Agriculture, a representative of ADRI, representatives of dairy projects, delivery veterinarians and a representative of the local public office, depending on the venue of the meeting. Six meetings were held between 1994 and 1996.
The project established collaborative arrangements with a number of institutions and projects. These included the Regional Coordination and Training Project (Harare, Zimbabwe); ILRI (Nairobi, Kenya); VPC (Lilongwe, Malawi); the Sokoine University of Agriculture (Morogoro, Tanzania); ADRI (Nairobi, Kenya); the USAID/Heartwater Project (Harare, Zimbabwe); the Dutch-funded Dairy Projects, Tanga Smallholder Dairy Development Project (Tanga, Tanzania) and Kagera Livestock Development Project (Bukoba, Tanzania), and the Swiss-funded SHDDP (Iringa-Mbeya, Tanzania).
Based on the results of activities conducted by the project and the consultancies, it is recommended that the reorganized VPC structure be maintained and supported as a means of establishing, increasing and maintaining confidence in the products of the Centre by users. Technical support staff who were re-assigned to the newly-created departments at the VPC should receive additional training since a great deal of time has elapsed without many of the staff performing the duties they were trained for.
The proposal to transform the VPC into a company for the production and distribution of TBD vaccines should be implemented in accordance with suggestions made by the marketing, business and legal consultants. Similarly, the marketing penetration strategy should be adopted.
Internationally qualified and experienced TAs in the production and distribution of the relevant vaccines should be employed until local/regional expertise, recommended by the marketing and business consultant, gain experience and confidence in managing the complex VPC activities.
The proposal of continuing research and development in support of production and large-scale use of the vaccines should be implemented.
The recommendations fall into the following categories: immunization, tick control, training, coordination, vaccine delivery/cost-recovery and immediate research needs.
It is recommended that in smallholder (dairy-crosses) farming systems in ECF endemic areas, immunizations be carried out to protect all susceptible animals. Adjustment of tick control is not advocated, however, because it is currently done inefficiently and erratically. In the future, B. bovis and heartwater immunizations should only be considered if results of further investigations justify it. Anaplasma vaccinations are not recommended.
On commercial dairy and beef farms, ECF immunizations of both adults and calves should be carried out. This would lead to a reduction of up to 50% acaricide usage. Further reduction depends on the results of further investigations at farm level. Calves should be exposed to ticks and TBD in order to encourage the development of endemic stability to the diseases.
ECF immunization in the traditional sector should only be initiated if steps to improve livestock marketing and adequate regional activities to support it are in place.
The wide range of acaricides on the market makes it difficult to recommend national guidelines for adjustment of tick control regimes. Nevertheless, a new legislation to control acaricide importation and stricter supervision is advisable. Further investigations should be carried out to define the new geographic distribution of B. bovis and C. ruminantium and their probable vectors in the different areas of the country.
It is recommended that vaccine delivery veterinarians be trained individually for the best results. Furthermore, long-term training of nationals and diagnostic and training facilities should be supported since they contribute to institutional capacity building.
It is recommended that a tick and TBD unit be established to coordinate and act as a counterpart agency for all related projects on tick and TBD control in Tanzania. The unit should coordinate the research undertaken in the Sokoine University of Agriculture and ADRI.
Links should be forged between mainland and Zanzibar/Pemba tick and TBD control activities to enable the free flow of information and better collaboration.
It is recommended that full cost-recovery be implemented to achieve sustainable integrated tick and TBD control. Adequately-trained personnel should be responsible for sub-contracting, monitoring and soliciting potential clients, guaranteeing financial returns while remaining in overall control of immunization activities in their regions.
The choice of a local vaccine strain should only be considered after immunization failures have been recorded, studied and confirmed. Investigations should be conducted to evaluate the potential of a local isolate and/or its possible incorporation into the trivalent vaccine. This process, however, should not slow down successful immunization activities elsewhere in the country.
It is recommended that economic impact assessment be an integral part of any future project proposal since results of the assessment are a valuable tool in subsequent promotional and extension activities.
PROJECT STAFF
Dates of Service
Name Function Starting Date Concluding Date
International
Malawi
F.L. Musisi Chief Technical Adviser 1 Jan. 1994 31 Dec. 1994
J.A. Lawrence Vaccine Quality Assurance 1 Jan. 1994 31 Oct. 1994
A.P. Whiteland Vaccine Production Expert 1 Jan. 1994 30 Sept. 1994
P.E. Hermans Veterinary Consultant 10 Jan. 1994 2 Feb. 1994
P. Van der Stichele Communications Consultant 1 March 1994 30 March 1994
R. Dalgliesh TBD Consultant 13 Feb. 1994 2 March 1994
P.J. Nelson Business Development 7 Feb. 1994 2 March 1994
Consultant 25 April 1994 31 May 1994
J. Ntambirweki Legal Consultant 13 Feb. 1994 16 April 1994
P.D. Kemp Acaricides Consultant 17 April 1994 30 April 1994
S.P. Kamwendo National Project Director 1 Jan. 1994 31 Dec. 1994
R.C. De Rooij Livestock Consultant 1 Oct. 1994 16 Nov. 1994
B. Haussmann Associate Professional Officer 16 Sept. 1995 15 Sept. 1996
Tanzania
P. Jacobsen Chief Technical Adviser 1 Nov. 1993 31 Oct. 1994
G.M. Lynen Chief Technical Adviser 20 May 1995 28 Feb. 1997
D. Marstrand Ass. Professional Officer 7 March 1994 5 March 1995
Z. Muyovela Driver 1 Nov. 1993 28 Feb. 1997
L. Njuguna Senior Lab. Technician Aug. 1995 Aug. 1995
March 1996 April 1996
O. Onyango Data Management Nov. 1995 Nov. 1995
J.C. Quiroga Protozoologist, VPC Oct., Dec. 1994 and Feb. 1995
M. Kamtotole Lab. Technician, VPC April 1995 April 1995
P. Mella National Project Coordinator 1 Nov. 1993 30 June 1995
K. Majaliwa National Project Coordinator 1 Sept. 1995 28 Feb. 1997
A. Semufali Counterpart to CTA, Arusha 14 Jan. 1994 31 March 1996
C. Bakuname Counterpart to CTA, Arusha 1 July 1996 28 Feb. 1997
J. Nyange Director, ADRI 1 Jan. 1995 12 March 1996
Dates of Service
Name Function Starting Date Concluding Date
M. Mkonyi Director, ADRI 1 Nov. 1996 28 Feb. 1997
M. Ruheta O-i-C, Protoz. Dept., ADRI 1 Jan. 1995 28 Feb. 1997
A. Kondela O-i-C, VIC, Mwanza 1 Jan. 1994 28 Feb. 1997
F. Sudi O-i-C, VIC, Iringa 1 Nov. 1993 28 Feb. 1997
F. Sunguya RLDO, Kilimanjaro region 1 June 1995 28 Feb. 1995
D. Kundy O-i-C, VIC, Tanga 1 Nov. 1993 28 Feb. 1997
O. Swai O-i-C, Bukoba 1 Nov. 1993 20 May 1996
S. Omolo KALIDEP Manager, Bukoba 1 Sept. 1996 28 Feb. 1997
P. Mtui Sr. Lab. Tech., VIC, Arusha 1 June 1995 28 Feb. 1997
M. Ochomba Sr. Lab. Tech., VIC, Iringa 1 Nov. 1993 28 Feb. 1997
FELLOWSHIPS AND STUDY TOURS
A2.1 FELLOWSHIPS
Participants Study Place Dates
A. Semufali Basic computer skills 21 Aug.-29 Sept. 1995
A. Semufali Data handling 1 October 1995
C. Bakuname
M. Otaru Diagnosis of TBD Harare 24 Nov.-6 Dec. 1996
A2.2 STUDY TOURS
P. Mella, Tick and TBD workshop Lilongwe 27 - 28 April 1994
P. Jacobsen
Mtei, Animal health economics, Nairobi 8 - 13 August 1994
Sarakikya quantitative epidemiology
P. Mella, Veterinary epidemiology Nairobi 14 - 20 August 1994
Mtei,
Sarakikya
P. Mella, Planning training activities, Nairobi 22 - 24 August 1994
P. Jacobsen impact assessment studies
A. Kondela, TBD diagnostic training VPC, Lilongwe 12-30 September 1994
D. Kundy
K. Majaliwa, THPI-conference Kruger Park, 27 Aug.-1 Sept. 1995
L. Lynen South Africa
K. Majaliwa, Epidemiology workshop Harare 18 - 23 March 1996
L. Lynen
IN-SERVICE TRAINING
Participants Place Dates
11 ADRI, Dar-es-Salaam 3 - 8 Aug. 1995
10 VIC, Mwanza 9 - 12 Aug. 1995
11 VIC, Arusha 14 - 20 Aug. 1995
9 ADRI, Dar-es-Salaam 11 - 16 March 1996
25 VIC, Arusha 16 - 18 March 1994
17 VIC, Tanga 21 - 23 March 1994
26 VIC, Mwanza 26 - 28 July 1994
10 VIC, Iringa 13 - 17 Nov. 1995
10 Mbeya 20 - 24 Nov. 1995
26 Arusha 26 - 27 March 1996
28 Moshi, Kilimanjaro region 3 - 4 April 1996
15 Hai, Kilimanjaro region 23 April 1996
18 Monduli, Arusha region 6 - 7 May 1996
18 Mbulu, Arusha region 8 - 9 May 1996
12 Iringa 29 - 30 June 1996
17 Kibaha, Dar region 1 - 2 July 1996
21 Mabuki farm, Mwanza region 3 - 5 July 1996
MAJOR ITEMS OF EQUIPMENT PROVIDED
Cost
Quantity Item ($ US)
1 Vehicle, Land Rover, Defender station 21 124
1 Landrover, Defender, hardtop, 2-door T
1 Computer, IBM PS/1 486DX 1 900
1 Printer, HP Laserjet 4L 995
1 Inverter, ASP 750 1 020
3 Liquid nitrogen container, Cryolab (transport) 2 700
Office furniture: 1 500
4 Dining chair
2 Desk
1 Book-shelf
2 Cabinet
2 Study desk
1 Cabinet, filing
DOCUMENTS PREPARED DURING THE PROJECT
Commercial rationale for a production and distribution component of a multi-donor programme for tick and tick-borne diseases control in eastern, central and southern Africa. P.J. Nelson.
Commercial rationale for vaccine production and distribution. P.J. Nelson.
Technical review of the production and quality control of tick-borne disease vaccines in a vaccine production unit, Malawi. R.J. Dalgliesh.
Legal aspects of establishing a vaccine production centre as a legal entity. J. Ntambirweki.
Structure of the veterinary services and the status of the privatization effort in selected African countries. P.E. Hermans.
The production of East Coast Fever vaccines within the framework of the FAO coordinated multi- donor programme for integrated tick and tick-borne disease control in eastern, central and southern Africa. R.C. De Rooij and T. Lang.
East Coast Fever control by immunization of cattle in Mwanza. FAO Annual Review Meeting, Arusha, 6-8 December 1995. A.J. Kondela, G.M. Lynen.
The adverse effect of levamisole on developing East Coast Fever infections. Proceedings of 13th Tanzania Veterinary Association Scientific Meeting, Arusha, 5-7 December 1995. G.M. Lynen et al.
Comparison of morbidity, mortality and performance between ECF immunized and non-immunized dairy animals in Iringa and Mbeya region. Proceedings of 13th Tanzania Veterinary Association Scientific Meeting, Arusha, 5-7 December 1995. I.N.F. Mwakalile, F. Sudi, G.M. Lynen et al.
Current strategies for the control of ticks and TBDs in Tanzania. Proceedings Epidemiology Workshop, Harare, 18-22 March 1996. L. Lynen, M.K. Majaliwa.
Tick and tick-borne diseases in Tanzania: country needs and perspective. Proceedings ECF Immunization Campaign Workshop, ILRI, Nairobi, 17-19 July 1996. Melewas, M.K. Majaliwa, L. Lynen.
East Coast Fever epidemic in Zalambi sub-station, Mabuki. Proceedings of 14th Tanzanian Veterinary Association Scientific Meeting, Arusha, 3-5 December 1996. A.J. Kondela, G.M. Lynen.
Towards a new ECF control strategy for Tanga region. Part 1: East Coast Fever immunization trials in Tanga. B. Van Munster, G.M. Lynen, A. Lyimo, D. Kundy. In preparation.
Towards a new ECF control strategy for Tanga region. Part 2: Sero-survey in Tanga region. B. Van Munster, G.M. Lynen, P. Mtui. In preparation.
ABSTRACT OF KEY PROJECT PUBLICATIONS
Comparison of morbidity, mortality and performance between immunized and non-immunized dairy animals in Iringa and Mbeya region. Proceedings of 13th Tanzania Veterinary Association Scientific Meeting, Arusha, 5-7 December 1995. I.N.F. Mwakalile, F. Sudi, G.M. Lynen et al.
Sixty-four non-immunized dairy animals, born in 1989 in the field and offspring of SAO hill heifers (F1), were compared with 164 dairy animals born at SAO hill in 1989, immunized in 1991 against East Coast Fever with the trivalent sporozoite stabilate Theileria parva Muguga, T. Parva Kiambu 5 and T. parva Serengeti (transformed) and released to smallholders in the Mbeya-Iringa region in 1991.
The observation period used in the data analysis covers the animals from 1 July 1991 to 1 June 1995. The data collected by the monitoring unit were analysed and the following observations were made.
The mortality rate was significantly higher in the non-immunized group (32% against 6.7%). Most mortalities in the non-immunized group were due to TBD with ECF responsible for 76% of all the deaths recorded. Comparing ECF incidence in the immunized and non-immunized groups, an 81% protection was recorded in the immunized group.
Cost-benefit analysis showed a clear cost-benefit ration in the immunized group if 3:1. Milk production, although slightly higher in the immunized group, did not differ significantly (p=0.3030) from the non-immunized group.
The adverse effect of Levamisole on developing East Coast Fever infections. Proceedings of the 13th Tanzania Veterinary Association Scientific Meeting, Arusha, 5-7 December 1995. G.M. Lynen et al.
Forty-five animals, injected with a Theileria parva tick-derived sporozoite stabilite and treated with the anthelmintic drug Levamisole, showed unexpectedly severe reactions in terms of parasitosis, parasitaemia and mortality rates. This effect was equally observed when they were given a simultaneous injection of buparvaquone with the T. parva stabilate, while the adverse effect was not observed when they were given a dose of long-acting oxytetracyclines. A controlled experiment to determine the effect of Levamisole in combination with a T. parva sporozoite stabilite and different antitheirial treatments, clearly indicated the deleterious effect of Levamisole on developing ECF infections and on ECF immunizations when using buparvaquone as an antitheirial treatment.
