CSA - Contractual Services Agreement
DANIDA - Danish International Development Agency
DSC - Development Support Communications
ECF - East Coast Fever
EU - European Union
IBAR - Inter-Bureau for Animal Resources
ILRAD - International Laboratory for Research on Animal Diseases
ILRI - International Livestock Research Institute
NARES - National Agricultural Research and Extension Systems
NGO - Non-governmental Organization
ODA - Overseas Development Administration
OAU - Organization of African Unity
OVI - Onderstepoort Veterinary Institute
PSC - Programme Steering Committee
R & D - Research and Development
TBD - Tick-borne Disease
TCP - Technical Cooperation Programme
VPC - Vaccine Production Centre
WARRC - World Acaricide Resistance Reference Centre
In Eastern, Central and Southern Africa, East Coast Fever (ECF) and, to a lesser extent, other tick-borne diseases (TBDs) are major constraints to increased productivity of livestock. For nearly 100 years ECF was controlled through intensive close-interval dipping with acaricides to eliminate vector ticks and thus prevent transmission of the diseases. However, these methods were unreliable and expensive. The purchase of acaricides caused a major drain on the limited foreign exchange available to governments. As a result, basic and applied research continued to seek more economical and environmentally-friendly methods to control ECF, other TBDs and their vector ticks. Much of this work was carried out in institutions in the subregion. In the 1960s and 1970s several national projects played a major role in elucidating the distribution and epidemiology of ECF and other major TBDs and the distribution, ecology and population dynamics of the vector ticks. In the same period the regional project RAF/67/077 at Muguga, Kenya, worked on ECF and other tick-borne diseases and made significant improvements in the "infection and treatment" method of immunization against ECF. The International Laboratory for Research on Animal Diseases (ILRAD), established in 1973, focused research on the development of improved methods of diagnosis, immunization against ECF and African animal trypanosomiasis. Elsewhere, live vaccines against anaplasmosis, babesiosis, and heartwater were developed, tested and applied in the field.
Between 1983 and 1992, the projects funded by the FAO/Danish International Development Agency (DANIDA) programme, the Netherlands, the United Nations Development Fund (UNDP) and FAO/Technical Cooperation Programme (TCP) made substantial progress in a number of fields. Applied research was conducted into quantifying the economics of tick control in different breeds of cattle, including breed comparisons for resistance to ticks. A strategic tick control project was carried out in Burundi, while laboratory and field trials were conducted on the use of the Theileria parva Muguga cocktail in the control of ECF in Burundi, Malawi, Uganda, Tanzania and Zambia. Field immunization was carried out on the majority of the improved dairy herd in Malawi, and on a significant number of improved cattle in Tanzania and of traditionally managed cattle in the Southern Province of Zambia. Epidemiological studies on theileriosis were made, including the isolation and characterization of stocks for use in future immunization trials. A regional laboratory with appropriate facilities for the production of vaccines against ECF, anaplasmosis, babesiosis and heartwater was developed and improvements were made in the production and quality control of vaccines. Finally, application and verification trials were performed for integrated tick and tick-borne disease control.
These activities clearly demonstrate that immunization of cattle, particularly exotic animals and their crosses, against ECF and, as appropriate, other TBDs is now possible. Following immunization, tick control strategies to minimize costs and maximize profits can be reconsidered. For most traditionally managed Zebu cattle strategic tick control is now safe and cost-effective.
In September 1991 a series of meetings held in Uganda by FAO, ILRAD and the Organization of African Unity (OAU) reviewed the progress made on tick and tick-borne disease control in the region and proposed that the future programme include a vaccine production project, national vaccine delivery projects in nine countries, a regional delivery coordination project and a regional training and extension coordination project.
The main recommendation of these meetings was that a pre-investment phase be initiated for tick-borne disease control by immunization, based on quality-controlled vaccines produced on a commercial cost-recovery basis and delivered in a sustainable manner.
Formulation missions then took place, considering commercial vaccine production and integrated tick and tick-borne disease control in the field, after which two regional projects were drafted. These included all the activities envisaged in the projects listed above and made two main recommendations. First, immunization should be used for the field control of ECF on a cost-recovery basis as part of an integrated tick and tick-borne disease control programme. Second, where appropriate, the integrated programme should also include immunization against other tick-borne diseases (anaplasmosis, babesiosis, and heartwater) and strategic tick control. It was recommended that the vaccines be used in the countries in the region on a commercial basis to ensure the economic sustainability of the factory producing them in Malawi. The fact that over 90% of the vaccine produced would be exported was seen as an advantage in that it would enforce the highest standards in quality control.
There seemed to be little, if any, justification for concern over the introduction of foreign parasites, as they were constantly being introduced naturally in cattle and their tick vectors. Moreover, it was known that genetic (sexual) recombination occurs continuously in the tick host which is, in most situations, under constant bombardment from a wide variety of antigenic types.
Projects GCP/RAF/292/DEN and GCP/RAF/294/BEL jointly funded the Regional Coordination and Training Project. The project formed part of Phase III of the FAO Coordinated Multi-Donor Programme on Control of Ticks and Tick-borne Diseases in Eastern, Central and Southern Africa.
The DANIDA contribution under GCP/RAF/292/DEN was initially $US 2 015 672 and was later reduced to $US 927 458 for the planned period of 5 years from 1 November 1993 to 30 June 1997 and that of the Belgium Government under GCP/RAF/294/BEL was initially approved up to $US 1 005 059 for the period 1 July 1993 to 31 October 1997. Since the project was regional, it had no specific government counterpart agency and therefore no specific counterpart funding and signatures were obtained for implementation of the project. The project was based in Harare, Zimbabwe. A Programme Steering Committee (PSC), to which the Chief Technical Adviser was the Secretary, was formed in 1994 at the request of the three donors of the programme.
The development objectives of the project were as follows:
- to increase livestock production for local consumption in order to reduce the import of meat and milk, presently valued at $US 700 million per year in Sub-Saharan Africa, and to enhance the possibilities for establishing exports;
- to provide additional income for livestock owners through the sale of surplus, thus leading to an improvement in the protein diet of the urban poor;
- to reduce the regional level of potential environmental contamination with acaricides (including the level of residues in animal products) and to decrease land degradation through improved livestock management systems.
The coordination and training project had three immediate objectives:
- to establish an effective and sustainable vaccine delivery system within an integrated national tick and tick-borne disease control programme in the countries participating in the programme;
- to train field veterinarians, laboratory staff and farmers in the delivery and monitoring of the use of vaccines and associated tick control programmes;
- to set up an operational data base on integrated tick and tick-borne disease control in the region.
An FAO mission was undertaken in March 1994 to examine the need for a Development Support Communications (DSC) component in the programme. The objective of the component would be to ensure adoption by the farming community and animal health personnel of appropriate immunization techniques against tick-borne diseases and to elicit their participation and collaboration to render animal health services economically sustainable.
The report noted that the DSC component would need to focus on the mobilization, training and backstopping of the field veterinarians involved and on their partnership with the farming community. It would also need to sensitize the farming community and win the support of the policy and decision-makers with regard to the privatization of delivery services and the promotion of the programme, as well as that of the general public.
The DSC component strategy would be to implement DSC interventions and techniques which have an immediate practical result in promoting new integrated tick and tick-borne disease control campaigns, and to generate examples of successful and economically sustainable delivery services on the basis of privatization or cost-recovery, partnership and participation between the veterinary services and farmers. Its long-term objective would be to improve animal health services in the region.
The outputs of the DSC component would be product briefing kits, integrated tick and tick-borne disease control training kits, communications training skills training kits, field staff reference manuals, field communication kits and multi-media campaigns. The training activities would include a regional DSC-inception workshop, DSC guidance to the integrated vector and disease control workshops (to assist project staff in communication dynamics and techniques), communication skills workshops (for core-groups of field veterinary staff), field backstopping and monitoring (to provide DSC support to veterinary field staff) and DSC materials-production planning (to assist national communications liaison officers).
Following suspension of ECF vaccine production at the Vaccine Production Centre (VPC), Lilongwe, in Malawi in April 1994 it was proposed to subcontract the operation through tendering. Owing to a poor response to the tender and the interest shown by the Onderstepoort Veterinary Institute (OVI), FAO was asked to appoint a team to negotiate with the OVI regarding ECF vaccine production for the region, to consider investment and facilities at the VPC in the context of government interests and to examine the need for further research and development work on ECF vaccine.
The team recommended that a meeting of all stakeholders be held as soon as possible to consider the report. It was suggested that future production, titration and testing of ECF vaccine for the programme be contracted out to OVI and that VPC operations be closed down. It recommended that a consultancy be assigned to value VPC assets with regard to ownership and to consider obligations to the staff employed at that time and that all research and development (R & D) be done at OVI, with the possibility of contracting outside expertise. It also recommended that a workshop be held at OVI to identify research priorities and to develop the R & D programme and that a commercial partner be identified to link with OVI to assist in and promote the marketing and delivery of the vaccine. Finally, the team suggested that final decisions await a meeting of all stakeholders in order to consider the implications of any decisions that might be taken.
Despite these recommendations, the recipient countries and the donors agreed that ECF vaccine production should continue at the VPC, Lilongwe. Mechanisms of how to achieve this were to be worked out by a task force appointed by the donors and recipient countries.
The donors were not satisfied with the formulation mission reports and project documents regarding the operational capacity of veterinary services in the region, the marketing and business development of the tick-borne disease vaccines, and communications (training and extension). They also expressed dissatisfaction with the expatriate technical assistance to the VPC, which was considered top-heavy, the clarification of legal aspects pertaining to vaccines and tick control in the region, the potential involvement of commercial companies in programme activities and the role played by the International Livestock Research Institute (ILRI) in the programme.
An informal FAO/donor consultation agreed to consultancies to address these concerns. The consultants examined the operational capacity of veterinary services in the region, market and business development, legal aspects of vaccine production, its use and tick control, technical aspects of vaccine production, and communications. Their findings and recommendations, only highlights of which are contained in this report, can be found in the terminal report of project GCP/RAF/299/NET.
The consultant recommended the immediate implementation of the Uganda national delivery project with the establishment of a revolving fund account for purchasing materials from abroad. It was suggested that the Government address legislation regarding the privatization of veterinary services in all its aspects and that an immediate start on national vaccine delivery projects be made in Kenya, Tanzania, Zambia and Zimbabwe. It was recommended that Kenya use the Marikebuni parasite stock, Tanzania register the vaccine and initiate a cost-recovery scheme with a revolving fund account to receive the proceeds and Zambia conduct a cost/benefit analysis of immunizing indigenous traditionally managed cattle. Zimbabwe, on the other hand, should include production of a stabilate for use in cattle-buffalo situations and verify its efficacy; and convene a workshop involving government representatives and personnel from projects, veterinary associations and cooperatives, as well as private individuals, in order to examine the pre-requisites to privatization.
The consultant recommended the transformation of the VPC into a corporate body and proposed a management structure based on staffing from within the region supported by short-term consultancies on management and marketing, a technical advisory committee and a regional consultative committee made up of representatives of the stakeholders. The consultant also prepared a 5-year market profile, market penetration plan and a distribution management plan.
The consultant recommended retaining international technical assistance for the VPC to support the new management structure proposed by the marketing and business development consultant as a means of establishing confidence in the reliability of VPC products in the regional market.
The consultant further recommended that ongoing research and development of the production and large-scale use of the vaccines be maintained because of the nature of the vaccines and the uncertainty of their performance in the field.
The consultant noted that there was no legislation governing manufacture, distribution and use of live vaccines in Malawi, and that the Government did not favour the creation of parastatals. He recommended that the poisons list be amended to include live vaccines, that a private vaccine production company be created and that national veterinary associations acquire shares in the company to safeguard regional interests. In Tanzania, Uganda, and Zimbabwe the consultant recommended the revision of laws relating to acaricides, pesticides and live vaccines to embrace current developments and practices.
The project organized a workshop on acaricide use in Africa on 25 April 1994 in Lilongwe, Malawi. The workshop reviewed tick control policies in each country with particular reference to the use of acaricide mixtures/cocktails and the philosophy of alternating or rotating acaricides. The majority of countries within the Eastern and Southern African region were represented and reports on tick control policy, acaricide use and resistance problems were presented. The workshop concluded that, over the region, there was a diversity in tick control practices, discrepancies between policy and actual practices in usage, a trend towards a reduced frequency of acaricide application, a problem of home-made formulations leading to resistance and toxicity to the host and a general suspicion of resistance to specific acaricides despite the lack of resistance data. Participants noted that there was a need to achieve consistency in application and registration policy.
The workshop recommended that acaricide application frequency be reduced in order to establish and maintain endemic stability to tick-borne diseases and host immunity to ticks and that, where strategic or threshold applications lead to endemic instability, modifications of this approach be made to suit either indigenous communally grazed cattle or commercially raised improved livestock. It suggested that new acaricides be assessed for registration under strategic or threshold regime field trials to determine their effect on the seroconversion of calves to tick-borne disease and endemic stability. It was recommended that a panel of experts prepare standardized guidelines for pre-registration trials for new acaricides, in order to reduce duplication, and that the trials be conducted at regional centres (based on climatic conditions, tick species and occurrence of particular tick-borne disease) adequately equipped with trained staff. It further recommended that all persons using acaricides receive training and that the panel of experts above prepare a training manual in order to reduce malpractices in the use of acaricides. It was stressed that acaricide resistance management should not involve rotating acaricides, using mixtures of acaricide groups or changing concentrations, since such practices had not been adequately researched for ticks, especially three-host ticks in Africa. Finally, it was recommended that research into resistance management be initiated.
The project, in collaboration with ILRAD, organized a workshop on training and impact assessment on 22-24 August 1994 at ILRAD, Nairobi. It was attended by various FAO project staff from Malawi, Tanzania, Uganda, Zambia and Zimbabwe and from their national counterparts, ILRAD and the National Veterinary Research Centre, Muguga. Participants reviewed the status of the programme since its execution had undergone dramatic revision following the workshops in Malawi in April/May 1994. They considered how the training, communications and epidemiology components fitted into the programme. The workshop also discussed the proposed database with special emphasis on the minimum data needed to measure the impact of the proposed intervention control measures. The participants recommended standardized collation and dissemination of data and of reports on tick control and tick-borne diseases vaccination, and further training in immunization and monitoring.
A workshop held on 18-23 March 1996 examined the technologies developed to control ticks and tick-borne diseases with a view to assessing their efficacy, improving their application and delivery and determining their epidemiological and socio-economic implications and consequences, particularly among smallholder farmers. Consequently, the workshop focused on three themes: assessing the efficacy of control methods and immunization against the diseases; evaluating delivery systems for the control of TBDs; and measuring the impact of immunization and TBD control on livestock productivity.
The final session identified priorities and developed plans for the epidemiology component of the FAO/Multi-Donor Regional Programme, identified regional and country needs as well as potential collaborating partners, and determined requirements for research, data collection and information exchange.
The needs and priorities in the epidemiology of tick-borne diseases and their control were identified as linkages, standardization, research, training, information support, project funding and general funding.
Linkages would help to improve communication and information exchange between the key players in tick and tick-borne disease control, research and development. The players would include personnel from control programmes, broader smallholder livestock development programmes, national agricultural research and extension systems (NARES), universities and non-governmental organizations (NGOs). National steering committees would coordinate linkages between national bodies, other countries in the region and regional and international tick-borne disease control programmes. Within the region, the FAO programme would play an important role in developing and fostering linkages between national control programmes, international research centres and internationally funded tick-borne disease control projects.
In all the discussions, participants expressed a strong need for standardizing information recorded and agreeing on minimum standards for vaccination procedures, post-vaccination monitoring, diagnostic tests, procedures for responding to vaccine breakdowns and breakthroughs, sampling methods, data recording, data bases and tick control after vaccination. The workshop recommended that a working group be established through the FAO Multi-Donor Regional Programme to develop these standards.
In research, the following epidemiological topics were accorded highest priority: optimal tick-control strategies to be adopted following immunization against ECF; changes in parasite populations post-immunization; the effect of theileriosis and other tick-borne diseases on livestock production, particularly milk production; and the development of decision-support systems on the efficacy and impact of tick-borne disease control in a form that was useful to decision-makers.
Training programmes within NARES and universities should include improved diagnostic methods to characterize disease risk and surveillance, and impact assessment, particularly of immunization and other control methods. Participants also recommended improvements in training at national and local level regarding the handling and delivery of vaccines, subsequent monitoring and the follow-up of vaccinated animals.
Participants recommended that results and other information (e.g., a directory of different projects, their objectives, staff, and results; availability, price, efficacy studies and registration status of TBD vaccines and informal copies of project reports) be disseminated at regional level.
On 17-19 July 1996, the project organized a workshop at ILRI to consider a draft Concept Note for the expansion of ECF immunization in Kenya, Rwanda, Tanzania and Uganda in order to capitalize on the progress made in those countries and to respond to the increasing demand for vaccine, particularly from smallholder dairy farmers. The proposed programme would be coordinated through OAU/Inter-Bureau for Animal Resources (IBAR) under a regional support unit to be set up with European Union (EU) funding, which would complement and supplement donor support from Belgium, DANIDA, the Netherlands and the Overseas Development Administration (ODA). The participants endorsed the proposed approach, emphasized that the programme should be coordinated on a regional basis through OAU/IBAR and concurred that the programme in Eastern Africa should be the start of a wider initiative which would subsequently lead to sub-regional programmes in Southern and Western Africa. The participants also recommended that, as far as possible, the field units proposed in the Concept Note be integrated with existing and ongoing operations under the national delivery projects to avoid duplication of effort and ensure long-term sustainability after donor funding is phased out. It was suggested that the task force directed to restructure the regional programme initiate plans to resume vaccine production at the VPC as soon as possible and that countries continue efforts to deliver vaccine with full cost-recovery, noting that any subsidy be kept to a minimum. It was further recommended that the ongoing training programme be consolidated and expanded through the national coordinating units to ensure that national staff are fully conversant with vaccination and follow-up, that OAU/IBAR, on behalf of the countries, submit the proposal to the EU for funding consideration and that OAU/IBAR and FAO liaise to identify alternative and additional funding sources if EU support is not forthcoming.
Owing to suspension of vaccine production at the VPC, the Director of ILRI offered to produce an interim batch of Muguga cocktail stabilate to help the programme replenish its declining stocks of ECF vaccine. Protocols for production of the interim batch were prepared and agreed upon, a Contractual Services Agreement (CSA) was finalized and the batch was prepared by ILRI. The batch was transferred to the VPC and, at the time this report was written, was being titrated to determine the number of doses it contained, after which it would become ready for use in those countries which use the T. parva trivalent stabilate for immunization. Results to date suggest that the batch is very potent and should contain over a quarter of a million doses.
The project defined the requirements a commercial partner should be able to offer to the programme as: experience of, and facilities for, marketing and delivery of veterinary products in Eastern, Central and Southern Africa; expertise in control of ticks and tick-borne disease, particularly ECF; and expertise in veterinary vaccine production, quality control and quality assurance in order to assist in advising on and monitoring ECF vaccine production.
Subject to mutual agreement, the project also outlined the potential responsibilities of a commercial partner. A number of commercial concerns was contacted and interest was shown by Mallinkrodt Veterinary Limited, in the United Kingdom, and Coopers, its associates in Eastern and Southern Africa. Following a request by the Fourth PSC Meeting, to hand over to the Chairman of the Task Force correspondence from commercial companies regarding their possible involvement in the marketing and delivery of ECF vaccine, FAO implemented that decision and its efforts on this issue ended.
The programme had identified the post of epidemiologist as crucial to the success of its efforts. A process of identifying suitable candidates was initiated by the project but was passed on to the chairman of the task force following a request by the Fourth PSC Meeting. On receipt of the task force's nomination, FAO notified the Belgian Government. However, owing to delays in the response from Brussels, it was not feasible to recruit a person for the post before FAO's implementation terminated in 30 June 1997.
The Coordination project, in collaboration with FAO Headquarters, relevant units and other parties organized meetings, Annual Review Meetings, PSC Meetings and workshops throughout its lifespan (See Appendix 3 for documentation). All major decisions made by the Annual Review Meetings and the PSC are given in reports and minutes of the meetings.
Although the project suffered from various interruptions which made it difficult to achieve the set immediate objectives, it nevertheless made considerable progress towards doing so. The following recommendations are directed to implementors of programmes succeeding the FAO Coordinated Multi-Donor Programme in order to assist them to work towards full achievement of the original objectives.
It is recommended that a DSC component, focusing on issues already identified and using the strategy given in the DSC Mission report, be included in programmes succeeding the current Multi-Donor Programme. Recipient countries and other interested parties should reach a clear and binding agreement on how the VPC activities will be funded in the future, specifying how the VPC can be transformed into an operational, independent, financially responsible corporate body capable of manufacturing vaccines and biological materials connected with the diagnosis and prevention of tick-borne diseases, and indicating how long this should take. It is recommended that countries in the region work towards achieving consistency in acaricide application, registration policy, regional facilities and training in acaricide resistance monitoring. They should also continue their efforts to reduce acaricide application frequency in order to establish and maintain endemic stability to tick-borne diseases and host immunity to ticks. It is further recommended that they continue a regional approach to a standardized collection, collation and dissemination of data and reports on tick and tick-borne disease control in order to form a sound base for the implementation of proper integrated tick and tick-borne disease control.
The project endorses all efforts to expand tick-borne diseases immunization in Eastern Africa as part of an integrated tick and tick-borne disease control strategy. Research on optimal tick-control strategies following immunization against ECF, the effect on parasite populations post-immunization, and the impact of these control measures on livestock production and socio-economics of the communities should be maintained or initiated.
Dates of Service
Name Function Starting Date Concluding Date
R.G. Pegram Regional Programme Coordinator Nov. 1993 Sept. 1994
A.D. Irvin Regional Programme Coordinator Oct. 1995 Sept. 1996
F.L. Musisi Regional Programme Coordinator Jan. 1997 July 1997
B. Haussmann Associate Professional Officer Sept. 1995 Sept. 1996
E. Zwizwai Admin. Assistant/Secretary Nov. 1993 Jan. 1997
E. Ndoro Admin. Assistant/Secretary Feb. 1997 July 1997
F. Siwardi Senior Driver Oct. 1994 Dec. 1996
Cost
Quantity Item ($ US)
1 Copier, Rank Xerox 4 165
1 Vehicle, Land Rover Discovery 5-Door Tdi 19 087
Spares kit, Land Rover Discovery 609
1 Toshiba T1910CS 11 497
1 Printer, HP LaserJet 4 Plus 8 892
1 Printer, Canon BJ10SX 1 039
5 Refrigerator, 35 HC liquid nitrogen 5 175
2 Refrigerator, 8XTL liquid nitrogen 1 220
1 Generator, Honda EM 5000 2 606
1 Generator, Honda EM 1800 1 284
1 Overhead projector 660
1 Facsimile machine, Xerox 7325 490
1 Velo binder 700
Annual review meeting of the coordinated multi-donor programme for integrated tick and tick-borne disease control in Eastern, Central and Southern Africa, 6-7 December 1995, Arusha, Tanzania.
Annual review meeting of the coordinated multi-donor programme for integrated tick and tick-borne disease control in Eastern, Central and Southern Africa, 13 March 1997, Nairobi, Kenya.
FAO coordinated multi-donor programme for integrated tick-borne disease control in Eastern, Central and Southern Africa. First meeting of the Programme Steering Committee, 5-7 December 1994, Harare, Zimbabwe.
FAO coordinated multi-donor programme for integrated tick-borne disease control in Eastern, Central and Southern Africa. Second meeting of the Programme Steering Committee, 27-28 February 1995, Nairobi, Kenya.
FAO coordinated multi-donor programme for integrated tick-borne disease control in Eastern, Central and Southern Africa. Third meeting of the Programme Steering Committee, 8 December 1995, Arusha, Tanzania.
FAO coordinated multi-donor programme for integrated tick-borne disease control in Eastern, Central and Southern Africa. Fourth meeting of the Programme Steering Committee, 6-7 June 1996, Lilongwe, Malawi.
FAO coordinated multi-donor programme for integrated tick-borne disease control in Eastern, Central and Southern Africa. Fifth meeting of the Programme Steering Committee, 14 March 1997, Nairobi, Kenya.
FAO coordinated multi-donor programme for integrated tick-borne disease control in Eastern, Central and Southern Africa. Report of a workshop to discuss East Coast Fever immunization in East Africa, 17-19 July 1996, Nairobi, Kenya.
Tick control policy and practice in Africa with particular reference to the use of acaricide mixtures and rotation. Report by D.H. Kemp.
Epidemiology of ticks and tick-borne diseases in Eastern, Central and Southern Africa. Proceedings of a workshop organized by FAO in association with the International Livestock Research Institute (ILRI), 12-13 March 1996, Harare, Zimbabwe.
Immunizing against Theileria parva infection using live Theileria sporozoite vaccines. Paper presented by the project at the FAO/IAEA/ILRI workshop on ELISA Diagnostics, 26 November-3 December 1996, Veterinary Research Laboratories, Harare, Zimbabwe.
Towards an integrated approach to the control of ticks and tick-borne diseases in Africa. Paper presented by the project at the FAO/IAEA/ILRI workshop on ELISA Diagnostics, 26 November-3 December 1996, Veterinary Research Laboratories, Harare, Zimbabwe.
Production of Theileria parva stabilates for immunization against theileriosis. Paper presented at the workshop on Theileria parva vaccines (ILRI), 10-12 March 1997, Nairobi, Kenya.
