2.1 BUILDING CAPABILITY OF THE WATERSHED MANAGEMENT SECTION
2.2 VAISIGANO RIVER WATERSHED MANAGEMENT PLAN
2.3 EXTENSION EDUCATION AND AWARENESS PROGRAMME
3.1 WATERSHED MANAGEMENT PROGRAMME
3.2 WATERSHED MANAGEMENT PLAN IMPLEMENTATION
AsDB - Asian Development Bank
CFU - Community Forestry Unit
DLSE - Department of Lands, Survey and Environment
EPC - Electric Power Corporation
FD - Forestry Division
FWMP - Fuluasou Watershed Management Plan
IPF - Indicative Planning Figure
MAFFM - Ministry of Agriculture, Forests, Fisheries and Meteorology
MOU - Memorandum of Understanding
NEMS - National Environment Management Strategy
NGO - Non-governmental Organization
PA - Preparatory Assistance
PCC - Project Coordination Committee
PWD - Public Works Department
SPFDP - South Pacific Forestry Development Programme
USP - University of the South Pacific
VRWMP - Vaisigano River Watershed Management Plan
WMS - Watershed Management Section
WPIU - Watershed Planning and Implementation Unit
WSWA - Western Samoa Water Authority
In the absence of mineral resources, Samoa's forests are a valuable natural resource, covering 37% of the total land area (282 000 hectares). Approximately 47% of the forest land is on Savaii Island, with the remaining 23% on Upolu Island. The Forestry Division (FD) of the Ministry of Agriculture, Forests, Fisheries and Meteorology (MAFFM) estimates that, of these remaining indigenous forests, only 5% is merchantable while 32% is non-merchantable. The non-merchantable forest is found on steep slopes and is kept mainly to protect water catchments, biodiversity, ecologically sensitive areas, national parks and rainforest reserves.
The non-merchantable forest areas are the source of more than 65 water intakes, which produce 5.4 MW of hydro-power. They support 775 native vascular plant species, 30% of which are unique to these areas, and also provide the only known habitat for 21 butterfly species, 14 species of reptiles and 43 resident bird species.
There is constant pressure on the soil, water and biological resources due to population growth, high birth rates and political independence, which raised expectations among the people for improved living standards. Competition between the urban and rural communities to develop tourist facilities, the over-exploitation of natural resources and industrial developments cast doubts on the sustainability of these resources and led to the degradation of the environment as a whole.
Forests have a significant role to play in the economy of Samoa. The management and development of the resources in order to produce wood and non-wood products on a sustainable basis depend on the economic development of the country and its people in harmony with the environment. The protected forests in watersheds act as a stabilizer of catchment areas, help to prevent land degradation, rapid run-off, sedimentation and flooding and increase water yield for domestic consumption, hydro-power generation and sustainable agriculture production.
The Sixth Development Plan (DP 6, 1988-1990) specified that the development of the country's land resources should focus on allocating land to provide maximum net benefit to the country. The plan clearly spelled out how to integrate forestry and agriculture development to minimize land use conflicts and to preserve vital forest areas for sustainable water flow and soil erosion control.
The long-term development objective of the Seventh Development Plan (DP 7, 1992-1994) remained basically the same as that of its predecessors. The plan expressed concern over the indiscriminate clearing of forests, which created derelict land, reduced watershed values and adversely affected inshore fisheries. The strategies and policies specified in the forestry sector of DP 7 were to provide assistance to the villages to undertake their own forest planting and management programme, to continue commercial forest planting to provide national self-sufficiency, to promote awareness of the conservation role of forests and to enforce existing laws to prohibit forest clearance in watershed and catchment areas.
Within the framework of DP 6, at the request of the Government of Samoa, FAO initiated the Vaisigano Pilot Watershed Management Project, TCP/SAM/8851 in 1989, under the Technical Cooperation Programme (TCP). In order to develop an integrated watershed management programme and complete the activities initiated under this project, the Government undertook the Development of Vaisigano Pilot Watershed Management Project, SAM/89/001, for a period of two years (1990-1991) with the assistance of UNDP/FAO. During these pilot phases, various soil conservation and watershed management techniques were developed, extension and education materials were prepared and demonstration areas were established.
Following the implementation of SAM/89/001, the Tripartite Review meeting concluded that the project was a success as a pilot programme. The meeting strongly supported a follow-up phase to consolidate what had been accomplished in the pilot phase and to expand the activities to other watershed areas. It was agreed that UNDP/FAO would continue to provide technical assistance to implement the capital loan assistance provided to the Government by the Asian Development Bank (AsDB).
The Watershed Management and Conservation Education Project, SAM/92/003, was formulated to implement the Vaisigano Watershed Management Plan, transfer technologies to other watershed areas and provide technical assistance to support the capital assistance and overall institutional development.
Only weeks before the end of SAM/89/001, in December 1991, Cyclone Val inflicted significant damage to the infrastructures, nurseries and demonstration areas and extensive damage to the vegetation of the watershed areas. This led to an almost total loss of the physical achievements made by SAM/89/001. The current Watershed Management and Conservation Education Project began in January 1992, with a preparatory assistance (PA) phase to rehabilitate conservation works already implemented under SAM/89/001 and to start the initial building up of the enlarged watershed management programme in Samoa.
The preparatory assistance phase Project Document of the Watershed Management and Conservation Education Project, SAM/92/003, was submitted by FAO in January 1992, and was signed by UNDP on 27 February 1992 with an initial UNDP input of $US 215 000 and a government contribution of $WS 202 000.
The main phase Project Document, which covered all operations from January 1992 to 1996 (including the PA phase), was signed by UNDP/FAO and the Government on 25 June 1993. The estimated UNDP budget of $US 743 000 was increased in March 1995 to $US 845 880, while the Government's contribution was $WS 1 203 550 in kind and $US 96 520 through STABEX. The Asian Development Bank provided assistance in the form of a loan of $US 2 098 000 to the Government for rehabilitation work at the Vaisigano and the Fuluasou watersheds. The Ministry of Agriculture, Forests, Fisheries and Meteorology's Forestry Division and Watershed Management Section (WMS) were designated the government implementing agency and FAO was nominated the executing agency.
To complement the shortage of indicative planning figure (IPF) funds, the Government provided $US 96 520 under cost-sharing arrangements with UNDP, which helped to mitigate the shortage of inputs and to achieve the project objectives.
The project became operational in January 1992, was extended on the Government's request and terminated on 31 October 1996.
The overall development objective of the project was to contribute to the sustained use of watershed resources by improving technical skills, basic knowledge and awareness of the watershed degradation problem and by enhancing the national capacity to plan, implement, monitor and evaluate watershed management programmes. The long-term objective of the project was to conserve and manage the watershed resources, thus raising the socio-economic conditions of the upstream population by providing improved quality and quantity of water and protecting settlements downstream by minimizing the effects of watershed degradation such as flooding, sedimentation, and the loss of agricultural productivity and fisheries potential.
The immediate objectives of the project were to:
- upgrade and improve the capabilities of the Watershed Management Section of the Forestry Division to plan, execute, coordinate, monitor and evaluate watershed management programmes;
- implement the Vaisigano Watershed Management Plan by involving the local community, groups and people residing in the watershed area;
- promote public awareness of the importance of forestry, agroforestry, agriculture and soil conservation practices in the conservation and management of watershed areas;
- promote environmental conservation and ensure sustainable use of watershed resources through a comprehensive national inventory of the watersheds of Samoa and formulation of a watershed management programme;
- introduce watershed management in the Fuluasou watershed through the replication of proven practices in watershed management from the Vaisigano watershed on a demonstration scale.
The Government of Samoa initiated the watershed management programme in early 1989. In May 1990, it established the Watershed Management Section under the Forestry Division of the Department of Agriculture, Forests and Fisheries, which became the Ministry of Agriculture, Forests, Fisheries and Meteorology in 1995.
The project was designed to improve the capability of the WMS staff. Although they had basic training in forestry, watershed management was a new field to most local staff members, who were given an opportunity to attend overseas and in-country training courses on various aspects of soil conservation and watershed management. The training was instrumental in developing capabilities and advancing technical knowledge, as well as satisfying UNDP requirements for sustainable human development.
The local staff were given ample opportunity to implement various programme components of the project with their expatriate counterparts. The Watershed Planning and Implementation Unit (WPIU) prepared watershed management plans, operated watershed rehabilitation-related activities and monitored and evaluated the implemented programmes. The Extension Education Unit successfully implemented awareness programmes designed for different target groups, while the Community Forestry Unit (CFU) implemented participation-oriented programmes.
The experience gained by the WMS staff in implementing the project will help to continue the watershed protection and management programme in the country with minimum guidance.
The Project Document envisaged the establishment of a project coordination committee (PCC). In compliance with AsDB requirements, the Treasury Department set up the PCC for Cyclone Damage Rehabilitation Project, the objective of which was also to provide policy guidance and overall coordination, to monitor progress and to resolve problems.
The project coordinated watershed-related activities with various governmental and non-governmental agencies such as the Department of Lands, Survey and Environment (DLSE), the Western Samoa Water Authority (WSWA), the Department of Health, the Electric Power Corporation (EPC) and the University of the South Pacific (USP) through the FD of the MAFFM.
Within the watershed area, the project coordinated all the activities planned for the different target groups through the Magiagi village council (Fono), from which it received considerable support. The project was also successful in establishing and coordinating field activities with other programmes supported by donor agencies, such as the Farming Systems Project (AusAID), Peace Corps Office; the International Board of Soil Research and Management; the Fisheries Development Project (AusAID) and the Reforestation Project (NZODA).
Watershed information was also provided to various missions such as the Agriculture Sector Programming Mission, New Zealand Forestry Review Mission, National Water Resources Master Plan and project visitors and consultants from different agencies and organizations.
The project successfully coordinated activities with the Water Supply and Sanitation Project (RAS/92/034), the Fruit Tree Development Project (SAM/92/002) and the South Pacific Forestry Development Programme (RAS/92/361).
Coordination between agencies and available resources is vital to the success of any programme. The WMS coordinated through the Watershed Management Committee at national level and through the village Fono at field level.
The project was monitored and evaluated through tripartite reviews, six-monthly progress reports and quarterly progress reports prepared exclusively for the Government and AsDB.
A regular monitoring and evaluation system was also established at project level. The monthly monitoring and evaluation of field level activities was the responsibility of the WPIU. A monitoring and evaluation report was submitted to the senior watershed management officer, to be discussed by the field supervisors and planning officer in a staff meeting. This helped to improve work quality, meet work schedules and promptly correct mistakes.
Besides developing the monitoring and evaluation of project activities, considerable time and effort were devoted to improving WMS general administration, the inventory of the WMS store, vehicle operations and the monitoring and evaluation of the performance of staff members as well as casual labourers. The system, which improved the quality of field work, staff performance, recording systems, data, maps and the store inventory, is now in place and is the responsibility of WMS staff members.
Cyclone Val in 1991 caused considerable damage to the Vaisigano Watershed, the project infrastructures and the activities implemented during Phase I, SAM/89/001. A detailed and quantitative assessment was carried out by the project.
The project also assisted the Apia Observatory in establishing three flow measuring stations in the Vaisigano and Fuluasou watersheds.
The Vaisigano River Watershed Management Plan (VRWMP) was formulated during TCP/SAM/8851 in 1990. Selected activities were then implemented to demonstrate appropriate techniques and their possible replication in other watersheds in the country. As the Vaisigano is strategically located and is the source of drinking water and hydro-power for the capital town of Apia and the surrounding villages, its protection and management was listed as a priority.
The VRWMP recommended twelve activities, most of which have been implemented with the assistance of the Government, AsDB and UNDP/FAO. The following sections provide an overview of the activities implemented within the Vaisigano watershed area.
The preliminary assessment of damage by Cyclone Val in the Vaisigano showed that 40% of the trees had been blown down. Of the remaining trees, about half were badly damaged and the other half were sparse and mainly on higher parts of the watershed. To provide cover to the open areas a rehabilitation plantation programme was implemented with AsDB financial support.
In total, 807.6 hectares (Vaisigano 424.6 ha and Fuluasou 383 ha) were planted with a variety of species, either indigenous or exotic but naturalized, well-adapted and fast-growing, providing cover to the cyclone-damaged upstream areas of both watersheds. In the long term, this vegetation will help to maintain flow regime and enhance the natural ecosystem.
The plantation areas in both the watersheds have been mapped in 1:5 000 and 1:10 000 scale showing details of compartments, sub-compartments, species planted, area and spacing. The original maps are kept in the cartography section of the FD.
The Magiagi plantation road, located on the eastern side of the Vaisigano watershed, is approximately 6 km in length. Due to a lack of proper engineering design and drainage, the road was identified by the VRWMP as a major source of sediment to the Vaisigano river system. It was agreed to upgrade and construct proper road drainage, so that the road would provide a better service and contribute less sediment to the river. Approximately 4.9 km of the road was upgraded and road drainage was provided where needed by the Public Works Department (PWD) through AsDB financial support.
A river bank erosion control measure was implemented at Alaoa on the Vaisigano river to train local staff and to demonstrate soil erosion control to other target groups. Three layers of gabion baskets were laid and filled with stone along the river bank. The area behind the structure works was filled with soil and planted with tree species. Although costly, the measure was justified since the river could easily destroy roads, bridges, water tanks and other infrastructures during high floods. The other component supported by the AsDB was the construction of a new bridge over the Vaisigano river at Leone.
To improve the environment, and to reinforce rock revetment works along the river banks of the Vaisigano, tree-planting was planned. Unfortunately, owing to delays in implementing the river-bank protection works, the buffer-strip planting was not implemented.
Most lands upstream are used under customary title. People of the South Pacific, Samoans in particular, have a unique cultural attachment to the land, which has considerable implications on the activities planned by the project in upstream watershed areas. On customary land within the watershed, the project initiated a forest and fruit tree planting programme. To encourage farmers to plant trees, forest tree seedlings were provided free-of-charge, including 10% of fruit trees. Land preparation was carried out by the individual farmer under the supervision of the extension worker. The project then delivered the planting materials and the farmer planted the seedlings, together with project labour. The maintenance was carried out entirely by the farmer. A memorandum of understanding (MOU) was signed by both the project and the farmer before the programme was implemented.
The project took a different approach with individual farmers holding big parcels of land in the upstream areas, particularly in the Fuluasou watershed. The project negotiated with the customary title holders to plant their land with forest tree species. The land owner then received 10% of fruit trees in terms of land area planted by the project. The responsibility of the land owner was to plant and maintain fruit trees, whereas forest trees were maintained by the project, since it is unrealistic to expect a farmer to maintain forest trees planted in such large areas. This programme operated in both the Vaisigano and the Fuluasou watersheds where over fifty farmers participated.
School students also took part in the tree planting programme. Biological control measures and mulching were demonstrated as an alternative to herbicides and pesticides. Compost-making was also introduced as an alternative to chemical fertilizers.
The project was successful in implementing the programme and in mobilizing the watershed dwellers by providing planting materials, technical assistance and some labour input.
In early 1989, the Vailima nursery was reoriented to produce seedlings for planting in the watershed area and distribute them to the villagers in the watershed. The nursery produced almost 50 000 plants between 1990-1991. However, the last two cyclones, in particular Cyclone Val, completely destroyed the nursery and damaged almost 95% of the seedlings.
The nursery was then redesigned using galvanized iron pipes and shade cloths that could be folded to one side in the event of strong winds or cyclones, thus preventing damage to the seedlings as well as to the shade cloths themselves. The nursery can produce 150 000-200 000 seedlings, of more than ten species.
The loss of forests, cultivation of steep slopes, use of agro-chemicals, population growth and haphazard or unplanned development activities within the watershed area have damaged the upstream ecosystem, threatened bio-diversity and affected near-shore marine areas, including lowland forests, lagoons and coral reefs. It is apparent that most watershed degradation problems are related to human activities. Education and awareness were thus considered major objectives.
A series of consultative workshops was conducted for the village leaders (matais) from the Vaisigano watershed during the implementation of SAM/89/001, and a general consensus was obtained to start watershed conservation awareness programmes designed for different target groups.
The target groups identified by the project include policy-makers, professionals in watershed management, land-users and fact-finders. Among the proposed ways of communicating with them were field visits, in-service training, workshops, field days, demonstrations, booklets, film strips, posters, slides, television and radio, sign-boards, displays, conservation week and Arbor day.
The project was not in a position to disseminate the extension, education and awareness materials and messages to watersheds other than Vaisigano and Fuluasou. However, it established linkages and formed a network with other departments, agencies and non-governmental organizations (NGOs).
The general awareness programme used the radio, newspapers and television. Altogether, 25 radio spots - interviews with technical staff and farmers and small advertisements - and five television programmes were broadcast and 43 short articles, advertisements and information on project activities were published, encouraging the public to take care of the watersheds.
The project took part in more than fifteen exhibitions organized during special events such as the Agriculture show, Environment week, World Food Day, World Water Day, UN 50th Anniversary and Arbor Day. Posters, pamphlets, calendars, stickers and booklets were also distributed at these events.
The project also published a set of four stamps showing the value of water and watershed protection and management, following a poster competition organized by the World Food Day Committee of Western Samoa. The publication of the stamps highlighted the Government's efforts in the conservation of water and watersheds, not only in the country but also overseas.
Twelve workshops for village leaders (matais) from the Vaisigano and Fuluasou watersheds were organized in order to familiarize them with the programme and encourage them to support the Vaisigano and the Fuluasou watershed programme implementations at the village Fono. The matais were also encouraged to use their influence as opinion leaders and decision makers in their own families.
A study tour was organized to enable ten matais from the island of Savaii to observe the watershed management activities implemented in the Vaisigano and the Fuluasou watersheds, although the project did not cover Savaii. Following the study tour, the matais requested the replication of the weed control technique using calliandra on Savaii. This was done on the land of 14 matais.
It was concluded that, for the successful and smooth implementation of the programme, village leaders, Fono and Pulenuu should be involved from the initial stages.
2.3.1.2 Women's committee programme
Women's committee members from both watersheds were invited to attend workshops and field visits to explain the concept of watershed management and its linkages with health, environment, food production and nutrition. The project organized workshops where more than 150 committee members attended, leading to the establishment of two conservation farming plots. Although there were several requests to establish conservation farming plots by individual members the project could not provide material support, owing to limited resources.
2.3.1.3 School programme
School students were identified as another important target group. During the project, 41 school programmes were conducted, highlighting the importance of watershed protection, the consequences of degradation and the benefits of watershed management. The programme was attended by 8 159 students and 295 teachers. Audiovisual materials, booklets, posters, pamphlets and comic books were used and distributed. Field visits were organized for some schools.
As a result of the school programme the Papauta Girls College and the Avoka Junior High School established conservation farming plots in their school compounds. The project also assisted the Department of Education, Curriculum Development Unit, in developing a lesson on Forestry and Conservation. A workshop was organized for a group of science teachers, which resulted in the development of a Reference Book on Watershed Management.
2.3.1.4 Farmers' programme
The project also organized a series of workshops for small groups of farmers from the watersheds to demonstrate the application of various conservation techniques. At the request of farmers, a farm plan was developed, taking into account the farmers' wishes and the physical properties of land such as soil, slope and moisture.
Once the plan was agreed upon, a memorandum of understanding between the farmers and the project was signed by both parties, spelling out the contributions from the project and the role of the farmer.
The project provided free tree seedlings, free technical advice, seeds of agronomic crops, fruit trees and limited labour assistance to the farmers who participated in the programme. The farmers were monitored by the project and encouraged to invest part of the income generated from the harvests in improving the farm and purchasing tools and seeds. A total of 41 farmers from the Vaisigano and 27 farmers from the Fuluasou watershed participated in programmes such as forest and fruit tree planting, establishing agroforestry and conservation farming plots.
2.3.1.5 Other programmes
The support of politicians and high-ranking officials is important when trying to persuade a village to adopt watershed management practices. The role of the chief and orators is so strong in Samoan culture that support from such figures can easily influence the village community to follow and adopt the conservation practices promoted by the project. The project therefore arranged several field visits to the project sites for this particular target group.
Village youths, who could easily spread conservation techniques and messages among villages, were another important target. The project mobilized youths from Tapatapao village to establish an agroforestry plot under a coconut plantation.
Village pastors are well respected in Samoan society and can be influential in changing the attitudes of the people. Thus, the project organized a workshop and visit to the demonstration plots so that pastors could understand the value of watershed protection and management. As a result, pastors talked about the protection and management of God-given gifts such as soil, water and vegetation after their services, thus spreading the conservation messages to a larger audience.
2.3.1.6 Extension and education materials
A number of extension and education materials developed under previous phases were available to the project, which focused on using materials that were already available rather than on developing new ones. To support the extension, education and awareness programme of the project, however, a limited amount of materials was developed during the project period.
Unless people are convinced of the benefits of the programme, they may not replicate the technologies developed by the project. Although people were aware to some extent of the problems and possible solutions, it was difficult for them to assess the benefits beforehand. It was thus decided to establish demonstration plots to show various soil conservation and watershed management techniques and methods.
Four conservation farming demonstration plots were established and maintained in two watersheds by schools and farmers. These plots were visited by more than 5 000 different target group members and project visitors from national and international organizations.
The conservation farming demonstration plot of 1.2 ha at Papauta Girls College was established in early 1995 and monitored very closely by the project. The results were very encouraging. By August 1996, the school was able to generate income of more than $WS 5 000 from short and medium-term crops alone, with long-term crops still to be harvested.
The demonstration plot successfully showed how to use a piece of land to its maximum capacity by integrating agriculture, forestry and conservation, how to make intensive use of downstream watershed lands and how to produce food in harmony with the environment.
Owing to these short, medium and long-term benefits, there were a large number of requests for such plots by different target groups during workshops and field visits. However, the project was able to cater to only a few of these requests.
2.3.2.3 Agroforestry
The planting of agriculture crops together with tree crops is a traditional practice in the watershed areas. Since such a system blended well with the local tradition, culture, economic and biophysical parameters, the project introduced improvements to the traditional systems. The presence of technical staff, demonstration plots, and easy access to the planting materials inspired the farmers to plant forest tree crops such as poumuli, mahogany and ironwood together with banana, breadfruit, coffee, cocoa, etc. This practice was followed by farmers from both the watersheds.
Use of the legume tamaligi (Calliandra calothyrsus) to control weeds was much preferred by the farmers to that of weed control mats, weedicides and weeding by bush knives. With minimal support and technical guidance from the WMS, farmers could easily adopt this practice, which is simple, economical, beneficial and environmentally sound.
2.3.2.4 Assessment of extension and education programme
A consultancy was mounted to review the extension, education and awareness programme implemented during different phases of the project, evaluate its effectiveness and to recommend a comprehensive extension and education strategy to be followed by the WMS.
The report made a comparative analysis of project targets versus field achievements, evaluating the programme from the viewpoint of various targeted groups: farmers, landowners, women's groups, media journalists and schoolchildren. By comparing data from previous baseline studies conducted by the project, an attempt was made to evaluate the effectiveness of the programme in relation to changes in land use, changes in the level of awareness and changes in knowledge and attitudes towards the project.
The consultant concluded that the project had effectively increased the level of public awareness on problems related to water catchment protection and management in Samoa, particularly in the village of Magiagi and in villages included in or surrounding major water catchments targeted by the project. He found that the project had also been effective in increasing the level of knowledge and participation of watershed dwellers and farmers in project activities, particularly in the area of group education, such as visits to demonstration plots and participation in workshops. Overall, the public education programme and the target group workshops were highly positive in terms of the approach, oral presentation and educational material used.
Watershed degradation and related environmental problems in Samoa are similar to those of other countries in the South Pacific Region. The loss of forest due to natural calamities such as flooding, cyclones, droughts, agricultural expansion and commercial logging threatens important watersheds in each country.
In addition to the five main rivers and associated watersheds identified by the 1983 watershed inventory, there are a further 40 rivers in Samoa. Many of these are seasonal in nature and flow only after significant periods of rainfall. There is a general tendency in Samoa to tap rivers to meet the increasing demand for drinking water and hydro-power generation. Diesel plants are used to generate only 20% of electricity, either where streams are not available or simply to back up hydro-power plants during the dry season.
Besides the five watersheds, the Government is currently tapping or planning to tap water from new watersheds to meet the increasing demand for drinking water and hydro-power resulting from an increase in population and industrial uses.
In order to form a basis for future watershed management planning and to prioritize inputs, a reconnaissance level inventory was conducted. The report, "An Inventory of Watershed Conditions and Management Needs in Western Samoa", is expected to be a reference for future watershed programmes in Samoa.
Large land units with significant water handling capacity were not treated as individual watersheds, but grouped together, since land units that aggregate ecologically and hydrologically form similar watersheds.
During the process background materials were collected and checked against the proposed present and future water-related programmes of relevant agencies. Finally, the watershed areas were prioritized, and management activities were recommended.
The inventory found signs of degradation in watershed conditions. The development of roads, hydro-power sites, residential areas, and to some extent, agricultural expansion has impacted on watershed conditions. Of the total watershed area (100 470 ha), 13.7% requires immediate management and short-term investments, 9% requires medium-term investment and the rest need long-term planning and investment.
During the course of the inventory, several government departments, agencies and officials were interviewed. A lack of communication among agencies dealing with water emerged, as did the presence of an uninformed and sometimes insensitive public in water-related matters. Concern was expressed over the diminishing forest cover, wasteful and excessive water use and a shortage of hydro-meteorological information. It was felt that there was a need for careful planning and coordination in implementing watershed protection and management programmes in Western Samoa.
The Fuluasou watershed is in the north-central part of Upolu, west of Apia. It measures approximately 2 300 ha, and varies in altitude from sea level to 750 metres at the crater of Lake Lanotoo. Although not as steep as the Vaisigano, slopes still occupy about 20% of the area.
Fuluasou is the second most important source of water, providing for over 40 000 people in the area between Apia and Satapuala, near Faleolo Airport, and including the economically important Vaitele Industrial Area. Water is tapped from three main branches of the river.
The Fuluasou Watershed Management Plan was prepared in the early stages of the project. Although the plan categorized the watershed as being in reasonable condition, there are signs that this is deteriorating. The cultivation of steep slopes, the use of agro-chemicals and the distribution of vegetation are major concerns. There are visible signs of sediments in the river, as well as a deterioration of water quality and an irregular flow, with periods of flooding and water shortages.
The FWMP recommended that upstream and steep areas remain under permanent vegetative cover because of their importance for water conservation, biodiversity and scenic value. It suggested that the less steep middle belt area be used for agriculture, conservation farming and agroforestry types of activities and that the lowland area be developed for any desirable uses. Finally, it recommended that an awareness campaign be implemented immediately.
The watershed management technologies from the Vaisigano to the Fuluasou watershed were replicated within the general framework of the FWMP. Due to limited resources only part of the management plan was implemented.
2.5.2.1 Rehabilitation plantation
The upstream cyclone-damaged area of 383 hectares was planted with species similar to those planted in the Vaisigano. Since most land was under customary and private ownership the project took a slightly different approach from that at the Vaisigano. As an incentive to land owners, the project provided fruit trees to plant 10% of the land set aside for rehabilitation plantation. After confirming the suitability of the land, the project delivered the fruit trees, which were planted and maintained by the landowners themselves. The lands set aside for tree planting were planted with suitable species and maintained by the project.
2.5.2.2 Agroforestry and conservation farming
Two plots were established by the project within the Fuluasou watershed to show the techniques of agroforestry and conservation farming. The agroforestry plot, an initiative of the youth from Tapatapao village, was planted with forest and fruit trees in combination with banana and other agronomic crops.
The other plot was designed to show the sustainable use of land to obtain short, medium and long-term crops. The plot was instrumental in showing the farmers how they could generate income from short-term crops such as vegetables and medium-term crops like banana, pineapple, coffee, etc., while waiting for forest and fruit trees as long-term crops.
2.5.2.3 Run-off study plot
The Tapatapao run-off study plot was established by the project in 1993 jointly with the University of the South Pacific, with financial support from the International Board for Soil Research and Management, in order to measure run-off, soil loss and yield under different agricultural practices on steep lands.
In the first year, no statistically significant differences in harvest were found between different treatments, while, in the second year, the hedgerow system yielded significantly more. Although limited run-off occurred, soil loss was lower than that produced under the method farmers normally use. It cannot be assumed from these limited data, however, that there is no erosion problem. Soil erosion is associated with so many factors and signs of erosion could be seen during heavy rains. Further investigation is needed to determine these factors.
At the request of the South Pacific Forestry Development Programme (SPFDP), the project assisted in conducting roving one-week workshops on watershed management in 1993 and 1995 in the Cook Islands, Palau, Pohnpei (Federated States of Micronesia) and Tonga. The project also organized a two-week study tour (20-30 May 1996) with SPFDP for participants from seven Pacific Island countries (Cook Islands, Fiji, Nauru, Niue, Palau, Pohnpei and Tonga) in Samoa in order to share the knowledge and experiences gained by the project with other countries in the region and to discuss watershed issues and problems in these countries. At the end of the tour, participants recommended that a regional watershed management programme be initiated so that each participating country could start its own programme.
As a result of these two workshops and the study tour, a Regional Pacific Watershed Management Programme document was prepared for consideration by UNDP.
The project also organized attachment courses for the participants from the region and students from different institutions at the request of SPFDP, USP, in the field of soil conservation and watershed management.
The watershed resources in Samoa will come under increasing pressure in relation to the needs and expectations of its growing population. At the same time, the country has limited human resources and funds available to provide alternatives to such pressure. Every effort must therefore be made to manage and use such precious resources (soil, water and vegetation) wisely and on a sustainable basis. The technologies developed and the knowledge and experience gained in the Vaisigano watershed can be extended to other watersheds by providing further support to the WMS.
The Government of Samoa has recognized the need to protect and manage its watershed areas to ensure long-term sustainable production of watershed-based resources. For the future watershed management programme, it is recommended that the WMS protect those watersheds which are presently in good condition from deterioration and take rehabilitation measures, within the limit of available resources, for the important degraded watersheds.
Although the WMS is capable of implementing watershed management programmes in other watersheds of the country, it still needs support to extend and enhance the watershed management programme. This will further strengthen capability and develop self confidence among the staff. The preparation of a Watershed Management Plan should be a priority for the WMS. At least one semi-detailed level plan should be prepared every year for important watersheds, in close consultation with other agencies and local communities. The plan should be simple, easily understood and feasible. It is recommended that the FD explore the possibilities of implementing these plans, either with the assistance of interested donor agencies or even with local resources.
For the successful implementation of the watershed programme, it is essential to have a coordinated approach at national, project and village levels. The establishment of a Watershed Management Committee under the Watershed Protection and Management Regulations 1992 was a positive step to strengthen and coordinate the conservation effort at national level, while the linkages established by the project at village level and with other relevant agencies helped considerably in implementing field level activities. It is recommended that the WMS coordinate its field level activities using these mechanisms.
The project created an infrastructure composed of a building with working facilities such as a wind resistant nursery, transport facilities and communication equipment. It is recommended that the WMS take full advantage of this infrastructure. It is further recommended that the WMS make budgetary provisions and take appropriate action for the maintenance of this infrastructure.
The monitoring and evaluation system developed by the project is in place. It is recommended that the WMS use the system on a regular basis, following project guidelines.
The Vaisigano River Watershed Management Plan was the first Watershed Management Plan to be prepared and implemented in Samoa. Most of the activities envisaged in the VRWMP were implemented and no further investment will be required in the area under normal circumstances. It is recommended that the WMS set aside the upstream core area as a protected watershed and check for any encroachment and changes in watershed conditions.
The cyclone-damaged open areas were planted with indigenous as well as exotic species. Their performance was assessed over the last few years, but a long-term assessment is needed in order to determine the impact of vegetation on the soil and water resources of the watershed. It is recommended that the WMS, with the assistance of the Apia observatory, continue monitoring the plantations upstream and downstream, in particular, water flow, quality and sedimentation.
Regular maintenance of plantation areas has resulted in a survival rate of more than 80%. It is recommended that the WMS maintain the areas which have already been planted. In some cases only natural cover may be maintained rather than the planting of new areas. It is further recommended that the WMS not reject the planting of exotic species, which should be utilized when indigenous species are not appropriate.
Structural works have limited scope in Western Samoa and it is recommended that they be adopted only if absolutely necessary. The WMS should carefully analyse the nature of the problem and its effect on the lives and property of the people to justify such costly measures.
Programmes such as forest and fruit tree planting, agroforestry and conservation farming have been readily accepted by the watershed dwellers. The WMS should continue to support these programmes, using the incentives already being used.
As part of watershed plan implementation, it is essential to collect, analyse and publish the data related to water quantity, quality and sedimentation. These data will provide the basis to measure the impact of the watershed conservation programme and will also help future watershed programmes.
It is recommended that the WMS maintain the working relation established with the Apia observatory and provide support to continue the water quantity and quality monitoring system already in place. It is further recommended that all data collected be analysed and published every year. These data are valuable not only to the WMS but also to other agencies, such as the WSWA, EPC and PWD.
Since the WSWA is establishing a laboratory for water quality analysis, it is recommended that the WMS make every effort to obtain its help in analysing water quality samples.
It is essential to raise public awareness of the consequences of watershed degradation. The extension, education and training of various target groups are essential components of the awareness programme. To develop such a programme, extension staff should be very clear about the target groups and the programmes suitable for them. The matrix developed by the project should be fully used by the WMS extension unit for its ongoing and future programmes.
The extension unit of the WMS has been strengthened considerably by providing appropriate on-the-job and overseas training. It is recommended that the technical staff and field workers be given refresher training on a regular basis.
It is recommended that the programmes designed for target groups such as women's committees, school students, village youth, village pastors, matais and village Pulenuu be continued by the WMS. It is also recommended that audiovisual materials and field demonstrations be an integral part of all training and workshops.
The use of village extension workers to disseminate extension and education messages and general awareness programmes in the rural areas within the watersheds has been shown to be effective. It is recommended that the WMS use village extension workers for future programmes. It is further recommended that the WMS make every effort to use the extension network of the MAFFM to reach the target groups from other watersheds of the country.
Village Fonos play an important role in the village-level decision-making process and can also influence the populations of the villages within a watershed. It is recommended that the extension unit of the WMS attend village Fono meetings regularly. The use of village pastors for disseminating the conservation messages should be further explored by the extension unit of the WMS.
The project successfully generated interest in conservation programmes among the people from the Vaisigano and the Fuluasou watersheds. The use of incentives such as free seedlings, technical advice and some labour support at the initial stage accelerated the programme. The WMS should continue to provide such support to those people who would like to participate in the watershed conservation programme.
The project developed various extension and education materials at different stages. The extension unit of the WMS should attempt to use these materials extensively rather than developing new ones. It is further recommended that the extension unit continue to use radio and television programmes and the publication of conservation-related articles in newspapers as part of a general awareness programme.
It is also recommended that the extension unit of the WMS make every effort to follow the extension strategy for the implementation of an effective extension, education and awareness watershed conservation programme.
The watershed inventory showed that, although the country was inherently hydrologically stable, the watersheds in the Apia area are in need of prompt conservation and management action programmes to prevent further deterioration. It is recommended that the primary approach of the watershed management programme be protection and improvement in land use practices combined with awareness programmes.
To obtain up-to-date information, it is essential that watersheds are monitored within certain time intervals. It is recommended that inventories be carried out every ten years in normal circumstances.
The WMS should direct its resources to those watershed classes which are prioritized by the watershed inventory. It is also recommended that the WMS closely coordinate any new development activities taking place within the watersheds of Samoa with the WSWA, the EPC and the DLSE.
Furthermore, it is recommended that the WMS pursue, through MAFFM, the provision of a certain percentage of development funds to protect and manage watershed areas, particularly from development projects affecting drinking water and hydro-power.
The project developed soil conservation and watershed management technologies in the Vaisigano watershed that were suitable to Samoa. These were replicated at the Fuluasou within the limitations of the budget. It is recommended that the WMS attempt to replicate the technologies in other watersheds as soon as resources become available. Before doing so, a careful analysis of the problems and situation of the watershed resources should be carried out in consultation with the watershed dwellers. Depending on the scale of problems and available resources, the technologies should be replicated, or modified and implemented.
There were a large number of requests for some watershed activities, such as forest and fruit tree planting, agroforestry and conservation farming, even from outside the Vaisigano and Fuluasou watersheds. These activities support food production, income generation, poverty eradication and environment regeneration and also provide job opportunities. It is highly recommended that the WMS approach MAFFM for donor support to extend these activities to other watersheds in the country.
The importance of watershed protection and management cannot be underestimated in an island country like Samoa. The National Forest Policy, Water Resource Master Plan (draft) and National Environment Management Strategy (NEMS) clearly identified watershed protection and management as one of the important areas of conservation. It is recommended that the WMS coordinate its future activities within the framework of these documents.
It is also recommended that, whenever possible, watershed management programmes be implemented by the WMS. Any technical information or advisory services requested by watershed dwellers, government departments or agencies in the field of watershed management should be provided promptly by the WMS.
The project was able to generate interest among the countries of the region in the field of watershed management. It is recommended that the Government provide an appropriate level of funds to the WMS for it to continue with the present scale of operations.
The approval of the Watershed Protection and Management Regulations 1992 is a step forward in strengthening efforts to protect and manage the watersheds. It is recommended that steps be taken to declare the Vaisigano watershed a protected area under the above regulations.
In the absence of a land use policy and the presence of a complicated land tenure system, watershed dwellers are free to move into and cultivate the watershed areas. There is an urgent need for a policy to guide the overall land use system in watershed areas. It is recommended that an effort be made to develop such a policy for Samoa within the framework of NEMS.
The Government is promoting the cattle industry for milk and beef production in Samoa. Although this will help to boost the economy of the country as well as the socio-economic conditions of the farmers, it is highly desirable to take preventive measures to avoid any undesirable effects it may have on the environment. In particular, cattle farmers within the catchment area have considerable impact on water quality in terms of coliform bacteria. It is recommended that the WMS liaise with the MAFFM to avoid cattle farms in identified water catchment areas.
Watershed degradation has wide implications on both terrestrial and marine ecosystems, which are the key contributors to the economy of the country and the livelihood of the country's population. It is recommended that further support be provided for the watershed protection and management programme in Samoa over the next few years.
In view of increasing emphasis by the Government and the donor agencies on implementing development projects by national staff, it is essential to train the local staff by providing in-country, on-the-job and overseas training. This will help to build national capabilities and fill the gaps created by trained staff taking jobs overseas. It is recommended that staff training programmes be included as part of development programmes.
Based on the experiences and lessons learnt by the watershed management staff, the watershed management programme should be promoted in other watersheds in the country. Whatever methods are used to achieve the goal of the programme, traditional ties to the land, socio-cultural aspects and people's needs should not be forgotten. The experience from the project will be valuable not only to Samoa but to the other countries in the region.
Dates of Service
Name Function Starting Date Concluding Date
International
P.M. Baisyet Chief Technical Adviser Jan 1992 Oct. 1996
T.H. Christensen APO1
, Training and
Forestry Extension Jan. 1992 June 1992
M. Meijer APO, Watershed Management
and Land Use Planning Oct. 1992 Aug. 1994
O.P. Van Gilst APO, Forest Hydrology and
Sedimentation Jan. 1994 Dec. 1995
H. Blaffart APO, Nursery and
Plantation Management April 1993 March 1996
Consultants
D.O. Nelson Watershed Inventory Feb. 1994 May 1994
F. Martel Extension and Education May 1994 May 1994
National
T. Tavita National Project Coordinator Jan. 1992 Dec. 1992
T.A.S. Aveau National Project Coordinator Jan. 1993 Oct. 1996
M. Iakopo National Project Director Jan. 1992 Oct. 1996
S. Lemalu National Project Director Oct. 1994 Sept. 1995
T. Taogaga Senior Watershed
Management Officer Jan. 1992 March 1996
M. Paniani Watershed Planning Officer Jan. 1992 Oct. 1996
M. Silafau Watershed Extension Officer Jan. 1992 May 1993
N. Evaimalo Watershed Extension Officer Oct. 1994 Oct. 1996
T. Foliga Community Forestry Officer Oct. 1994 Dec. 1994
K. Tolovae Watershed Planning Assistant Oct. 1994 Oct. 1996
T. Letaulau Watershed Planning Assistant May 1993 Oct. 1996
Dates of Service
Name Function Starting Date Concluding Date
F. Tiitii Watershed Extension Assistant Jan. 1992 Dec. 1992
T. Vili Watershed Extension Assistant May 1993 Oct. 1996
R. Misi Community Forestry Assistant May 1993 Oct. 1996
A2.1 FELLOWSHIPS
Participants Study Place Dates
M. Paniani Soil conservation and Central Soil and Water Oct. 1993 -
watershed management Conservation Research April 1994
and Training Institute,
Dehra Dun, India
M. Iakopo Resource management University of Edinburgh, Oct. 1994 -
the United Kingdom Sept. 1995
A2.2 TRAINING COURSES
T. Taogaga Agroforestry system South Pacific Forestry April 1992
and practices Development Programme, (2 weeks)
Suva, Fiji
T. Foliga Field and middle-level DTCP2/, Manila, Oct. 1993
management and supervision the Philippines (1 week)
S. Lemalu Project planning approaches, DTCP, Manila, Aug. 1994
tools and techniques the Philippines (4 weeks)
T. Letaulau Field and middle-level DTCP, Manila, Sept. 1994
management and supervision the Philippines (4 weeks)
T. Vili Forestry extension strategy DTCP, Manila, Dec. 1994
the Philippines (4 weeks)
A2.3 SEMINARS
M. Iakopo 14th Commonwealth Sept. 1993
Forestry Conference, (1 week)
Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia
Subject Participants Dates
A3.1 TRAINING COURSES
Conservation farming system 13 April 1992
Soil conservation and watershed management techniques 20 May 1992
Basic surveying 8 April 1993
Forest and fruit tree planting 16 May 1993
Extension methods 10 Sept. 1993
Integrated watershed management 11 Sept. 1993
Importance of watershed protection and management 23 Oct. 1994
Nursery management and recording system 15 Nov. 1994
Integrated watershed management and its need in Samoa 14 Dec. 1994
Monitoring and evaluation of the field activities
implemented in watersheds 13 Jan. 1995
Chain saw operation, maintenance and safety procedures 15 Feb. 1995
Basic surveying, plotting and mapping 7 Feb. 1995
Computer training 7 Feb-March 1995
Propagation of some local species 11 May 1995
Pruning and maintenance of fruit trees 15 Nov. 1995
Use of audiovisual equipment 12 March 1996
Chain saw operation and maintenance 12 Aug. 1996
A3.2 FIELD VISITS
Visit to project area 41 April 1992
Visit to project area Different dates in 1992
Subject Participants Dates
A3.3 WORKSHOPS
Vaisigano watershed and its management needs 20 April 1992
Vaisigano watershed management programme and women's
committees' involvement 17 April 1992
Watershed management and conservation needs at Fuluasou 13 May 1992
Teaching watershed management at secondary school level 12 May 1992
Women's committees' involvement in Fuluasou watershed
conservation programme 13 June 1992
Environment and integrated watershed management 30 July 1992
Environment education and management 50 Nov. 1992
Importance of Fuluasou watershed and
its environment protection 21 Feb. 1993
Conservation farming system for sustainable development 20 March 1993
Role of village youth in Fuluasou watershed
conservation programme 12 June 1993
Vaisigano watershed management programme/
review and field visit 12 Aug. 1994
Watershed management programme implemented in Vaisigano
and Fuluasou watersheds 8 Sept. 1994
Watershed degradation and its consequences on health 45 Sept. 1994
Review of problems faced in implementing Fuluasou
watershed conservation programme 10 Sept. 1994
Review of tree-planting programme at Vaisigano 12 Sept. 1994
Importance of watershed management in Western Samoa 530 Dec. 1994
Importance of road drainage and road maintenance 20 July 1995
Men-women partnership for healthy environment including
field trip to the project 70 Sept. 1995
Concept of integrated watershed management 33 Nov. 1995
Watershed management in Western Samoa 12 May 1996
Importance of watershed resource
conservation and utilization 20 June 1996
Watershed programme review implemented by youths 22 Aug. 1996
A4.1 FIELD DOCUMENTS
Cyclone damage assessment of the Vaisigano watershed area, Field Document No. 1. P.M. Baisyet. 1993.
Assessment of the effects of Cyclone Val to the project activities implemented during earlier phases, Field Document No. 2. P.M. Baisyet. 1993.
Guidelines for landuse planning with reference to watershed management in Western Samoa, Field Document No. 3. B. Tjus. 1993.
Extension strategy on watershed management, Field Document No. 4. T. Christensen. 1993.
A reference book on watershed management, Field Document No. 5. T. Christensen. 1993.
Management plan for the Fuluasou watershed, Field Document No. 6. M. Meijer. 1994.
Guidelines for watershed management planning with special reference to small island developing countries, Field Document No. 7. M. Meijer. 1994.
Guidelines for hydrological and meteorological activities, Field Document No. 8. O.P. Van Gilst. 1995.
An inventory of watershed conditions and management needs in Western Samoa, Field Document No. 9. D.O. Nelson. 1996.
A report on extension and education programmes: review, evaluation and recommendations, Field Document No. 10. F. Martel. 1996.
A4.2 WORKING PAPERS
Status of watersheds of Western Samoa, Working Paper No. 1. P.M. Baisyet. 1993.
GIS application for watershed management in Western Samoa, Working Paper No. 2. M. Meijer. 1994.
River bank erosion prevention measures for the Vaisigano, Working Paper No. 3. H. Blaffart. 1995.
Hydrology of the Vaisigano watershed, Working Paper No. 4. O.P. Van Gilst. 1995.
Hydrology of the Fuluasou East watershed, Working Paper No. 5. O.P. Van Gilst. 1995.
Erosion in the Vaisigano and the Fuluasou watersheds: results of sediment sampling, Working Paper No. 6. O.P. Van Gilst. 1995.
Water quality of the Vaisigano and Fuluasou rivers, Western Samoa, Working Paper No. 7. O.P. Van Gilst. 1995.
Vaisigano rehabilitation plantation at Tiavi, Working Paper No. 8. F. Talie, L. Tuuau and B. Henri. 1996.
Management plan for the Faleseela watershed, Working Paper No. 9. M. Paniaini. 1996.
A4.3 MISCELLANEOUS
Work Plan for SAM/92/003 for 1992, 1993, 1994, 1995 and 1996. P.M. Baisyet.
Project performance evaluation reports for SAM/92/003 for 1992, 1993 and 1995. P.M. Baisyet.
Six-monthly progress reports (July-December 1992; January-June 1993; January-June 1994; July-December 1994 and July-December 1995). P.M. Baisyet.
Progress reports for Asian Development Bank supported components. Number of Reports 18. P.M. Baisyet.
Guidelines for monitoring and evaluation of conservation plantation in the watershed areas, M.P. No. 1. M. Paniani.
Criteria for the distribution of seedlings for watershed protection, M.P. No. 2. N. Evaimalo.
Report on nursery propagation of different local species, M.P. No. 3. H. Blaffart.
Report on training on monitoring and evaluation of field activities in the watershed areas, M.P. No. 4. M. Paniani.
Agroforestry demonstration plot on watershed areas of Savaii, M.P. No. 5. M. Paniani.
Project document for a regional Pacific watershed management programme.
A TCP proposal for South Pacific Regional Watershed Management Project.
Project completion report on the Cyclone Damage Rehabilitation Project, Loan No.1193-SAM (SF) Watershed Rehabilitation Component.
