FI:DP/INT/91/007 INTEGRATED COASTAL FISHERIES MANAGEMENT
Terminal Report THE GAMBIA, THE PHILIPPINES, the Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations UNITED NATIONS DEVELOPMENT PROGRAMME FOOD AND AGRICULTURE ORGANIZATION OF THE UNITED NATIONS Rome, 1998 |
The designations employed and the presentation of the material in this document do not imply the expression of any opinion whatsoever on the part of the United Nations or the Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations concerning the legal status of any country, territory, city or area or of its authorities, or concerning the delimitation of its frontiers or boundaries.
The Food and Agriculture Organization is greatly indebted to all those who assisted in the implementation of the project by providing information, advice and facilities.
2.1 REVIEW OF PRIOR EXPERIENCES WITH ICAM PROGRAMMES
2.2 PILOT PROJECT IN THE GAMBIA
2.3 PILOT PROJECT IN BOLINAO, GULF OF LINGAYEN, THE PHILIPPINES
Appendix 2: TRAINING ACTIVITIES
Appendix 3: MAJOR ITEMS OF EQUIPMENT PROVIDED
Appendix 4: DOCUMENTS PREPARED DURING THE PROJECT
ASEAN - Association of South East Asian Nations
CNRI - Caribbean Natural Resources Institute
DANIDA - Danish International Development Assistance
DOF - Department of Fisheries
EIA - Environmental Impact Assessment
GIS - Geographic Information System
ICLARM - International Centre for Living Aquatic Resources Management
ICAM - Integrated Coastal Area Management
ICFM - Integrated Coastal Fisheries Management
IUCN - World Conservation Union
NEDA - National Economic and Development Authority, the Philippines
NGO - Non-governmental Organization
PRA - Participatory Rural Appraisal
DGIP - Division for Global and Interregional Programmes
UNEP - United Nations Environment Programme
URI - University of Rhode Island, the USA
USAID - United States Agency for International Development
WWF - World Wide Fund for Nature
Marine fisheries employ large numbers of people residing in the coastal belts of developing countries. In many instances, fishing communities make concurrent or supplementary use of the natural resources available in coastal areas and are seasonally employed in, and dependent for their livelihoods on, different sectors. There are numerous linkages among the various economic activities at the levels of both physical interaction and the socio-economic characteristics of resources users.
In 1990, the FAO Fisheries Department submitted a project idea on integrated coastal area management (ICAM) to the UNDP Division for Global and Interregional Programmes (UNDP-DGIP). This was based on the understanding that fisheries were increasingly influenced by other users of coastal zones and that improved integrated planning and management approaches were required to deal with multiple resource-use conflicts, over-exploitation of resources and environmental degradation in coastal areas.
Following the submission, UNDP-DGIP requested FAO to prepare a full project document on ICAM. A first draft was submitted in 1991, with a proposed budget of $US 2.4 million. At the request of UNDP-DGIP, this was amended to provide a closer focus on the role of the fisheries sector in the ICAM process and to initiate the project through a shorter preparatory phase of two years and at a reduced budget of below $US 700 000.
The final Project Document, entitled Integrated Coastal Fisheries Management (ICFM), was officially submitted to UNDP in May 1992.
Project INT/91/007, "Integrated Coastal Fisheries Management", was signed by FAO on 21 May 1992 and by UNDP-DGIP on 8 June 1992, with an approved budget of $US 696 520 and a scheduled duration of two years. It became operational in the same month and was technically guided by the Fishery Development Planning Service, Fishery Policy Planning Division, for the following seven months. In February 1993, the project coordinator and the administrative support staff were appointed for a period of 18 months. In July 1994, UNDP agreed to extend the term of the project coordinator by two months, until the end of September 1994. The project was technically supported once again by the Fishery Development Planning Service, FAO, until its termination in March 1996.
A Project Performance Evaluation Report was prepared by FAO in January 1994. A bipartite review by FAO and UNDP was held in May 1994.
The development objective of the project was to contribute to improving the well-being of coastal communities through the better management of marine and land-based coastal resources and by protecting the coastal ecosystems as the basis for sustainable development.
The immediate objective of the project was to develop and improve methodologies and coordinating mechanisms for integrated coastal fisheries management and to prepare a detailed document for an enlarged programme phase.
The project strategy was to focus on the management of resources for sustained economic use that directly or indirectly enhance the well-being of coastal communities, particularly those depending on fisheries for their livelihood. Building on past experiences with ICAM programmes, the project was intended to:
- develop a typological framework for the identification and selection of priority areas for intervention;
- assess the suitability of different methodological tools for ICFM;
- review the economic, social and environmental impacts of selected macro- and sectoral policies affecting the utilization of coastal fisheries resources in a complex multi-user context;
- implement pilot activities in selected localities representative of regional or global concerns;
- establish a coordination framework for the implementation of a larger ICFM programme.
Special issues related to the integrated management of fisheries in coastal areas of regional or global importance were to be selected for the pilot activities. In terms of ecological settings, these were likely to include coastal reefs, mangroves, lagoons and river basins. On a sectoral basis, while fisheries and fishing communities were to receive primary attention, the impact of other sectors on fisheries was also to feature on the agenda. In socio-economic terms, approaches for the resolution of conflicts between small-scale and large-scale producers were to receive special attention.
Although the project was to give preference to fisheries administrations as counterpart agencies, it would liaise, as appropriate, with research institutions, including universities, and with non-governmental organizations (NGOs). The project would also promote the establishment of national steering committees to coordinate and guide management planning and implementation.
In view of its multi-sectoral nature, an international inter-agency project steering committee would be established to advise on the project's approach and to review the results and recommendations emanating from the pilot activities, as well as to provide guidance and solicit donor support for the expanded programme phase.
The project did not adhere to all aspects of the above implementation strategy, as reflected in the Project Document, owing to an unexpected change in the funding situation of UNDP in the spring of 1993, prior to the formulation of the work programme of the pilot sites. As a consequence, the project approach had to be changed in such a way that a positive contribution to the attainment of the immediate objective could be realized within the short span of the project, which had been intended as a preparatory phase only.
Three pilot sites comprising the coast of the Gambia, the municipality of Bolinao, Lingayen Gulf, the Philippines and the coast of the Gulf of Paria, Trinidad and Tobago were selected from eight potential sites by a review meeting attended by the staff of international and bilateral agencies including Danish International Development Assistance (DANIDA), the International Centre for Living Aquatic Resources Management (ICLARM), the Swedish International Development Authority, UNDP, the United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP), the World Bank and FAO in March 1993.
The limited budget and short duration of the project and the uncertainty of securing funding for an expanded programme phase affected the standing of the project in the three pilot sites. Although it was able to obtain good cooperation among government agencies and NGOs in all three sites, the formal setting-up of national project steering committees was unwarranted, owing to its short duration and small budget. However, the project findings in each site were discussed at national level or, in the case of the Philippines, at regional level. Furthermore, in Trinidad and Tobago, the pilot project was formally inaugurated by a major national inter-agency conference, while, in the Philippines, the pilot project was embedded in ongoing coastal resources management programmes at regional and local levels. In the Gambia, the project was principally guided by the Gambia Environmental Action Plan (1992) and the National Conference on Integrated Coastal Zone Management (March 1993), held just before the pilot project began.
In the absence of a realistic opportunity to lead the project towards an expanded programme phase, the establishment of a formal international inter-agency project steering committee was also not warranted for cost reasons. However, the project received valuable guidance for its approach and the selection of the pilot sites from the above-mentioned inter-agency review meeting. The participants of that meeting were kept informed of the project's progress through its reports.
To achieve a sustained impact in spite of the project's limited budget and duration, an effort was made to ensure: that governmental and non-governmental agencies and their staff were fully involved in the implementation of the pilot projects; that pilot activities formed part of a longer-term strategy of integrating fisheries into coastal area management; that pilot activities went beyond pure planning tasks, such as information acquisition, to encompass implementation tasks, such as awareness-building, education and extension; and that the results of the pilot project would be carried forward through other existing or planned ICAM/ICFM programmes in the three countries concerned. The project largely succeeded in fulfilling these requirements.
At its outset, the project commissioned detailed reviews of the experiences with integrated coastal management projects undertaken by the Association of South East Asian Nations (ASEAN), ICLARM, the United States Agency for International Development (USAID), the World Conservation Union (IUCN), UNEP, the University of Rhode Island, the USA (URI) and the World Wide Fund for Nature (WWF). These reviews served as an input into the development of a typological framework and of strategy elements of ICFM. They provided valuable guidance in the design and implementation of the pilot projects and made it possible to identify some principal typological criteria and strategy elements of ICFM. These are summarized below.
2.1.1 Definition of ICFM
In its broadest definition, ICFM may be understood as synonymous with ICAM in those coastal areas where fisheries, i.e., capture and culture fisheries, is the sector of primary concern. In other areas, ICFM may be considered a part of ICAM. In all cases, ICFM has a multi-sectoral focus which addresses, in addition to traditional fisheries management, concerns regarding biological and economic overfishing and habitat degradation, whether owing to intra-sectoral causes (e.g., the removal of mangroves for aquaculture) or extra-sectoral causes (e.g., coastal sedimentation as a result of deforestation).
2.1.2 Typological criteria
Typological criteria are intended to allow the anticipation of the occurrence of certain kinds of management issues in a coastal area, their prioritization and the evaluation of the effects of different kinds of management intervention.
Agro-ecological typological criteria, such as those applied to farming systems, can provide a good biophysical basis for management but these rarely coincide with the boundaries of social, economic and institutional variables. Other typological criteria relate to the relative importance of the coastal area to the total area, the occurrence of transnational coastal issues (e.g., marine pollution, biodiversity), and the so-called Mitchell typology, which considers three variables: policy structure (i.e., centralized-decentralized), policy orientation (i.e., conservation-development) and administration (i.e., problem-oriented-functional/sectoral).
The attained level of economic advancement and the degree of economic diversification and urbanization are important factors influencing the kinds of management issues which arise or are predominant in the coastal area. In low-income economies with low levels of economic diversification, the key management issue is often an excessive rate of exploitation of the available natural resources. In highly diversified economies, the management focus shifts to the prevention of pollution and habitat degradation. In the transitional stages, there tends to be a dualism and synergism of management issues so that, for instance, a loss of fisheries productivity owing to over-exploitation may be exacerbated by deteriorating water quality and the conversion of the habitat to other uses.
The development stage of the economy also tends to influence institutional and technical capacities for management. The financial and human resources which can be devoted to research, statistical services, administration and law enforcement are often closely related to the economic advancement of a country.
Other important typological criteria for the evaluation of management interventions relate to the level of administrative centralization/decentralization, the number of resource users and whether they have secure property rights or not and the degree to which resource users are exposed to competitive market forces.
2.1.3 Strategy elements of ICFM
There is no single correct way to organize, plan and implement an ICFM programme. The programme must be tailored to fit the issues prevailing in the coastal area and the institutional and organizational environments of the countries involved. However, there are some strategy elements which contribute to success. These include awareness-building, information acquisition, management interventions, legal framework formulation and integrated planning, coordination and consultative mechanisms. An additional element is capacity-building through education, training and extension in the various fields of ICAM/ICFM.
Awareness-building is vital to any management initiative because it helps to create a constituency for reaching management objectives. For a management programme to be effective, it must be accepted by those with stakes in the resources to be managed. Support and cooperation is needed from national, regional and local levels of government, concerned segments of the private sector, including individual stakeholders, and community and special interest groups.
A great variety of methods can be employed to raise awareness. Offering a forum for the various interest groups to interact and express opinions and positions helps to strengthen commitment to coastal management in general and to arrive at a consensus regarding specific management actions. National and regional policy workshops and conferences have been used successfully to promote dialogue among policy makers, resource managers, representatives of development aid and financial institutions, resource-user groups, NGOs and the media and to strengthen commitment to coastal management. Public meetings and consultation with community leaders are similarly effective.
The dissemination of factual information is also important. Comics, posters, television and radio programmes, videos, slide presentations and endorsements by public figures have all been used effectively to communicate important information for coastal management purposes. The media play a very important role in raising awareness of the general public and can influence public opinion considerably.
Regarding the kinds of information to be acquired for ICFM, a compromise needs to be struck between the requirements for sound technical information on the management issues at hand and obtaining a clear understanding of major stakeholders' positions, perceptions and aspirations, which are often at the origin of resource-use conflicts. A disproportionate effort, in terms of financial and human resources, should not be devoted to the collection of scientific and technical data at the expense of an early initiation of the management implementation process. Maximum use should first be made of secondary information, much of which is scattered, unanalysed, in unpublished reports. In this way information gaps can be identified and subsequent research focused more effectively.
Rapid appraisal techniques can be used to shortcut the acquisition of socio-economic and natural resource information by focusing on a narrow set of key characteristics or indicators. Geographic Information Systems (GISs) are another useful tool for organizing and analysing spatial information obtained through either remote sensing or ground-based surveys.
The ICFM planning process should consist of a series of sequential and partially overlapping stages. These may include inception, data acquisition and analysis, the formulation of management strategies and policy options, the evaluation and adoption of policy options, implementation and monitoring and evaluation. Integration is a key mechanism of ICAM/ICFM as it allows for the explicit consideration of tradeoffs among various development alternatives.
A strong coordination mechanism is needed to unite disparate government and research agencies, community organizations and NGOs to work towards common management goals. The objective of coordination is to promote and strengthen multi-agency and multi-sectoral cooperation and communication, to provide a forum for conflict resolution, to reduce rivalry by minimizing overlaps and gaps in organizational responsibilities, to provide overall guidance and to monitor and evaluate progress in ICAM/ICFM. The coordinating agency is instrumental to successful implementation. A national or local planning agency is usually a superior choice, as its functions cut across those of line agencies. Creating a special coordinating agency is another option, although it involves an additional layer of bureaucracy. In either case, setting up a steering committee, consisting of representatives of relevant line agencies, NGOs and major stakeholders, facilitates consultation among, and participation of, the parties concerned.
Community consultation seeks information, perceptions and preferences in the formulation stage, followed by cooperation, support and, possibly, participation in the implementation stage. The level of consultation and participation depends on the political, cultural and educational background of the community, as well as on its socio-economic and legal status. Community-based management must have a legal mandate, clearly allocating property rights to the involved community.
The range of management instruments available to affect desired changes in private behaviour can be grouped into two general categories. The first group is composed of market-based incentives, such as taxes, subsidies and tradeable quotas, used to influence the incentives faced by resource users and thus induce desired changes in resource-use patterns. The other category includes command-and-control instruments which directly regulate resource use. In many instances, a mix of regulatory and economic instruments is believed to be the most effective.
Worldwide experience in coastal management suggests that a wide range of supporting legal frameworks is possible. These range from centralized authoritarian power structures to decentralized adaptive frameworks. Some countries rely on standardized and centralized systems of land-use planning and development regulations, while others prefer market-based systems open to varying degrees of public and private participation or involvement.
2.1.4 Capacity building
Given the interdisciplinary nature of coastal management issues, both generalists and specialists are needed for ICAM/ICFM programmes. A core group may comprise expertise in resources and fisheries economics, biology, ecology, anthropology, sociology and legal and institutional matters.
While the assessment of specific training needs should be conducted in each country, existing national capabilities must be strengthened in most countries. Priority should be accorded to training, including short-term training courses, on-the-job training and degree programmes.
The pilot project in the Gambia became operational in May 1993. The national implementing agency was the Department of Fisheries (DOF), Ministry of Agriculture and Natural Resources, which provided the services of a Fishery Officer to act as national project coordinator. The pilot project officially closed on 21 December 1994, with the presentation and discussion of the project results at a national seminar.
The Gambia has a typical low-income economy with limited economic diversification. The management issues in the coastal zone are thus largely related to excessive levels of exploitation of natural resources. Pollution and habitat degradation due to industrial and tourism development are very limited and localized.
The strategy of the pilot project was to support the DOF in the evolving process of integrated coastal zone management in the Gambia. In particular, the project took up certain elements of coastal zone management issues of special importance to fisheries. These included the use of fuelwood in fish smoking, which contributes to deforestation in the coastal area; the maintenance of the mangrove environment and ecology, including shrimp fisheries and oyster harvesting; and the improvement of fisheries management in the artisanal sector, including conflict resolution and interaction with the industrial fleet.
In addition to the above issues, the project considered potential land and water-use conflicts between the fisheries sector and tourism as the latter expands along the coast. Following the advice of the DOF, the project did not take up the issue of land allocation and demarcation for fishing centres in the coastal area.
2.2.1 Fuelwood use in fish smoking
The project made a detailed study of the use of fuelwood and the costs and earnings of fish smoking. The results summarized below were derived from sample surveys of smokers at selected fisheries centres during one month each of the dry and wet seasons in 1994 and from a frame survey of fish smokers in the inland and marine community fisheries centres in 1993.
Two principal types of fish smoking can be distinguished: the processing of bonga, a sardine-like pelagic species, by mostly male smokers; and the processing of catfish, rays, sharks and a few other species by female smokers. The analysis of the survey data indicates that bonga smoking is a large-scale user of fuelwood. In comparison, the smoking activities of female smokers do not require large amounts of fuelwood and involve much smaller quantities of fish. The total fuelwood used by the former was estimated at 7 800 t per annum, which was needed to smoke about 9 800 t of bonga. Female smokers of catfish and other species in marine and inland fisheries centres, on the other hand, smoked a total of about 1 600 t and consumed about 400 t of fuelwood.
The estimated consumption of 7 800 t of fuelwood in bonga smoking is approximately 11% of the 69 000 t/year estimated household fuelwood consumption for cooking in the entire Greater Banjul area (including Serrekunda), with a population of 271 000 (1993 census). Most wood supplies for fish smoking are procured from a narrow strip of coastal land. Under the ecological and environmental conditions of Western Gambia about 9 400 ha of healthy forest would be needed to allow bonga smoking to continue on a sustainable basis. This kind of forest is no longer available in the coastal region. As a consequence, bonga smoking contributes to the `mining' of forests and woodlands in a highly concentrated fashion in the coastal area.
The problem may need to be addressed through a combination of several measures, including efforts to improve the fuel-efficiency of the smoking ovens and to expand the area from which fuelwood is procured. Other measures are the adoption of the rotational harvest of the Gmelina plantation, established within an earlier development assistance project, and the promotion of community forest and agroforestry schemes in the coastal area, if suitable land can be identified.
Cost estimates of wood production through plantations suggest that wood prices would need to be significantly higher than those presently paid by bonga fish smokers for wood procured from largely open-access forests. Although the analysis of costs and earnings established the high profitability of fish smoking, especially of bonga, in the Gambia, smokers are unlikely to be able to absorb the rise in wood prices which would be required to ensure the full cost recovery of plantation wood. An increase in wood prices, however, would provide a strong economic incentive for the adoption of wood-saving multi-layer smoking techniques. Higher production costs of smoked fish would tend to increase the price of smoked fish compared to that of iced-fresh and dried fish, which could provide a desirable incentive for product substitution by consumers.
The gradual removal of open access to the forests of the Gambia, primarily through the establishment of community-based management schemes of natural forests, is a desirable step and is expected, in the medium and long term, to increase wood prices to levels which better reflect the economic and social value of forest resources in the country.
2.2.2 Participatory appraisal of coastal resources management issues
Participatory Rural Appraisal (PRA) is a relatively new way to acquire critical information on local communities for planning and management tasks. Since very few examples exist of the use of PRA to collect information on coastal communities and resources, its application in selected communities of the Gambia was a test of its adaptability to ICFM issues. It also served as a training ground for DOF staff.
Various PRA tools, including historical profiles, seasonal calendars, Venn diagrams depicting institutional linkages, transects of land and seas uses and maps of the settlements, were applied to acquire pertinent information on the communities.
The PRA revealed great awareness and concern among the communities about the depletion of forests surrounding the fisheries centres owing to fuelwood requirements in fish smoking. Today, fuelwood needs to be procured from further afield, although still within the coastal area. This has created particular difficulties for female fish smokers who used to collect wood themselves at little or no cost.
Land use has changed in response to climatological factors and the growth of human settlements. A long-term decline in rainfall has encouraged a shift of farming from cereal and other crops to fruit tree plantations, as well as increasing pressure on land.
In all three communities, fishermen have noted a significant decline in the abundance of fishery resources over the past two to three decades. This is attributed to an expansion of licensed foreign industrial trawl fishing and to an increase in fishing activities by artisanal vessels. Artisanal fishermen are now required to go to offshore areas to find profitable resource concentrations, bringing them into conflict with the industrial fleet of trawlers. At times, the latter intrude into inshore waters, resulting in the destruction of artisanal fishing gear.
There are also conflicts within the artisanal fishery sector, particularly in Brufut, where drift gill nets become entangled with bottom-set gill nets. In freeing their nets, driftnet fishermen often resort to cutting the bottom-set nets. The issue is presently under review by the Government and consultative meetings are being arranged to resolve the conflict.
Fishermen expressed the view that the Government should take more stringent action against those who contravene fishery regulations. The management committees of the fishery centres could also become more closely involved in monitoring compliance with fishery regulations. However, many fishermen observed that this would require the formal delegation of greater management authority to the local level.
2.2.3 Management issues of estuarine shrimp fisheries
Estuarine shrimp fisheries contribute significantly to the employment and income of large numbers of rural families and processing workers. They also generate significant foreign exchange earnings. In view of the increasing level of fishing effort observed during the last decade, the pilot project studied the conditions and mechanisms of existing management practices at the community level and the socio-economic characteristics of the shrimpers, by means of a structured survey and informal group discussions.
The study revealed that, although shrimpers in different villages had differing opinions on the rate of exploitation of the shrimp stocks, they shared the view that neither the Government nor shrimpers' organizations should prevent people from entering these fisheries. In this respect, it appears that a link between resource potential and fishing effort was not directly made by the respondents and participants in the group discussion.
The major constraints identified by the respondents related to the difficult access and high costs of fishing inputs and to problems with the marketing of the shrimps. The latter reflects the perception of many shrimpers about the monopolistic market position of the industrial shrimp processing company active in the area.
The study investigated to what extent elements of community-based management (e.g., rule-making, organization, arbitration and conflict resolution) can be found in fishing communities along the River Gambia. Rules are applied in these communities regarding exclusive rights to fish a certain area by an individual fisherman. The value of these rights is indicated by the fact that they can be sold, inherited or leased. They are thus transferable and exclusive to the owner.
The study revealed that shrimp fishermen in the landing sites visited were organized either formally or informally. The activities performed by shrimpers' organizations vary significantly, ranging from an informal group for social ceremonies in one village to a regulatory and enforcing institution with rigorous management practices in another. The reason for these differences could not be established within the framework of the present study and called for further in-depth research. Conflicts were reportedly rare and, when they arose, were usually resolved among the fishermen themselves or arbitrated with the help of village authorities, elderly shrimpers or a combination of both.
The study concluded that the shrimpers' awareness of the resource potential and how it is affected by fishing effort may not be sufficient in all villages to permit effective local-level management of the shrimp fisheries. It recommends that the possible transfer of organizational structures and decision-making processes from those villages where regulatory and enforcement functions are effectively performed by shrimpers' organizations to those where these are presently absent be investigated. This may call for the initiation of inter-village extension activities at a local level.
2.2.4 Mangrove ecology and oyster harvesting
The Gambia possesses considerable mangrove resources, estimated at between 60 000 and 67 000 ha and comprising six different species and four mangrove community types. Among the most biologically productive ecosystems in the country, they form important nursery areas for fish and shellfish, provide a range of raw materials, such as firewood and construction wood, and protect the shoreline from erosion.
There is concern about the gradual decline in the abundance and quality of these mangrove resources owing to various factors. These include: their increased harvesting as firewood, poles and for building purposes; the application of inappropriate harvesting techniques by oyster collectors, resulting in mangrove mortality; the clearance of mangroves for agriculture and aquaculture; and the occurrence of localized mangrove die-backs, the cause of which is not well established. A preliminary study was undertaken by the project to address the above issues and the results are summarized below.
The mangrove vegetation along the Gambia River is dissected by well-developed meandering tidal bolongs (tributaries). Most stands are remarkably stable, with reduction mainly owing to activities such as agriculture. However, the mangroves are subject to localized die-back, especially in the transition zone between mangroves and terrestrial areas. Gall disease, as reported in the past by some authors, cannot be considered the main cause for this.
Mangroves in the Gambia exist in a very dry life-zone which probably makes them especially susceptible to changes in hydrology, and thus salinity, caused by successive years of drought. However, the localized nature of the observed die-back suggests that other stress factors are also at work, in addition to the long-term decline in average precipitation. These may include localized changes in topography and soil characteristics as a result of sedimentation processes caused by land clearing and erosion up-river, as well as deposits of desert dust from the Harmattan. Longer-term monitoring of hydrological regimes and soil properties at selected sample plots is required to establish the causes of the die-back.
The mangroves in the Gambia River estuary provide a natural habitat for oysters, which are harvested by over one hundred collectors, mostly women, on a seasonal basis. Although many women are engaged in wage-earning jobs, agricul-ture and oyster collection continue to provide the primary means of subsistence for many families.
While there are no available statistics on the quantities harvested, average sizes of oysters have become smaller, indicating intense exploitation. The cutting of the proproots of Rhizophora spp, to which the oysters are attached, is commonly practised within the mangrove channels, even though the technique is very destructive. In order to collect oysters sustainably, knowledge is required both of the behaviour, habitat and life cycle of oysters and of proper harvesting methods. The younger women observed appear to lack this knowledge and need practical training in this field from the older women.
The study concluded that the development of educational materials on mangroves, addressed to various sections of the population, is important for sustainable development and management. For this purpose, the study provided guidance on the preparation of educational materials to be distributed to local government units, schools, resource users and others.
The study also called for the development of a coordinated policy for the management of mangrove resources in the Gambia and the strengthening of research and management capacities. The former could be initiated through the establishment of a national multi-agency mangrove committee, while the latter may be achieved through the establishment of links and exchange programmes with universities and research institutions abroad and the participation of Forestry and Fisheries Departments staff in mangrove-specific training programmes and workshops.
The pilot project in Bolinao, Gulf of Lingayen, became formally operational in August 1993 following the official designation of the National Economic and Development Authority, Region I (NEDA I) as the project's lead implementing agency in the Philippines and the appointment of a national coordinator. It was formally closed at an inter-agency round-up conference on ICFM, held on 4 August 1995, which brought together all project partners and many of the agencies entrusted with ICAM tasks in the Lingayen Gulf region. On 7 August 1995, the project's findings were presented to municipal and barangay leaders and members of the fishing community in Bolinao.
In addition to its lead function, NEDA I was entrusted with the implementation of two project components: the preparation of a municipal GIS for Bolinao and a study on the income and employment potentials of alternative livelihoods for fishing communities.
Haribon Foundation, a national NGO, was entrusted with the third project component on environmental awareness creation and education. In implementing this component, Haribon Foundation was part of a broader-based coastal resources management programme in Bolinao executed, in addition, by the Marine Science Institute and the College of Social Work and Community Development of the University of the Philippines. This long-term programme is funded by the International Development Research Centre of Canada.
Other project collaborators included the Department of Agriculture, in particular, the Bureau of Fisheries and Aquatic Resources, the Department of Environment and Natural Resources, the National Statistical Office, the National Mapping and Resources Inventory Authority and the coastal barangays and municipality of Bolinao.
At the regional level, the project operated within the wider framework of the Lingayen Gulf Integrated Coastal Area Management Programme. This programme was started as one of the sites of the ASEAN/USAID/ICLARM project and resulted in a coastal area management plan. In its wake, the Lingayen Gulf Coastal Area Management Commission was established by the President in 1994 and the Gulf was declared an environmentally critical area.
2.3.1 Management issues
The most serious fisheries management problems in Bolinao municipality regard the excessive harvesting rates of reef species and the long-term degradation of the reef corals through the use of inappropriate harvesting methods, especially blast fishing and the use of poison (sodium cyanide). The underlying causes for these unsustainable exploitation practices relate to the largely open-access nature of the fishery, combined with high population growth and the lack of alternative employment opportunities. Their consequences include the loss of potential incomes, social conflict and the foregoing of future economic opportunities.
Habitat-related management issues in the coastal zone of Bolinao have not been pronounced hitherto, but include some use of corals as building material and the former removal of mangroves for fish ponds. However, these could become of primary concern when proposed plans are implemented to site a heavy industry park, including open-pit mining for limestone and a cement plant, in the precincts of the municipality and related infrastructure facilities, such as a coal-fired power station, railway track and a commercial transhipment port, adjacent to the coral reef area. These plans could be incompatible with the continuing use of the inshore reef fisheries and the development of eco-tourism in the municipality.
2.3.2 A municipal Geographic Information System
A GIS provides a powerful planning and management tool. It allows for the storage and analysis of geo-referenced and attribute data and promotes integrated planning through its inter-sectoral and multi-disciplinary properties. On a pilot basis, a GIS for municipal-level planning and management tasks was implemented by NEDA I in Bolinao. The principal results and outputs from the GIS were: a geo-referenced databank of biophysical and socio-economic information of the coastal barangays of Bolinao; maps showing mangroves, coral reefs, seagrass beds, mineral resources and geomorphological features, including the location of critical habitats such as nursery areas; maps showing the socio-economic profile of coastal barangays, including population distribution, and the location of various economic and social activities and facilities; and a preliminary coastal resource (land-side and water-side) zonation plan for the municipality.
The following broad policy guidelines should be taken into consideration for the zonation scheme. The area should be divided into zones in accordance with the goal of sustainable resource management. Second, existing uses should be respected unless they are seriously inconsistent with the goal of sustainable development. Finally, the zonation scheme should serve to indicate - but not impose - the desired use of both the terrestrial and aquatic resources of Bolinao.
The proposed zonation scheme anticipates a built-up area of about 8% of the municipal land area comprising settlement/residential, commercial/industrial, institutional and tourism areas. For settlement areas, the ribbon pattern (i.e., development along major roads) of development should be replaced with the concentric pattern for efficiency of land use and service delivery.
The tourism area should be expanded along the natural tourism sites, including Santiago Island. Considering the need for unspoiled natural surroundings and other aesthetic factors, the zonation scheme should ensure that tourism areas do not become sources of pollution or habitat degradation, nor should these areas be affected or degraded by such factors as ill-placed industrial activities (e.g., cement plant and transhipment port with oil depot) or inadequately located sewage disposal facilities.
The protection area should include the existing mangrove and nipa palm areas, as well as areas with slopes of 25_ and above, or elevations of at least 1 000 m. These areas are to be protected from conversion or from indiscriminate population activities that may have an adverse impact on the surrounding areas.
Approximately 36% of the municipal land area should be devoted to the production zone, primarily for agricultural use in accordance with the expansion requirements of the Key Production Area development programme of the Department of Agriculture. Almost half of the land area should remain grassland, with potential for producing natural forage for animal consumption.
At the sea-side of the municipality, four zones are proposed. The zone exclusively allocated to municipal fisheries, i.e., within the 7 km demarcation, should be reserved for the use of passive fishing gear only. This would exclude active types of gear such as trawls, purse-seines, ring nets and encircling nets. The general-use zone would be the area beyond the exclusive-use zone where active fishing techniques are allowed. Within the exclusive-use zone, two special management zones would be established, zones A and B. Zone A would encompass areas particularly vulnerable to the use of blast fishing, as well as favourable sites for the location of artificial reefs. This zone should be subject to special monitoring arrangements to prevent the use of illegal fishing methods. Zone B would comprise the valuable bangu fry grounds and the proposed marine reserve and park system north of Santiago Island. Regulations pertaining to habitat conservation, catching of fry and broodstock and environmental protection would need to be strictly enforced in this zone.
The following measures would need to be instituted for the implementation of this zonation scheme: the enactment of a municipal ordinance extending the municipal territorial waters to 15 km; the enactment of a municipal zoning ordinance following widespread public consultation and review; the regulation of fishing operations within the municipal territorial waters through the issuance of permits for fishing craft and gear; the provision of alternative livelihood opportunities for fishermen in order to reduce fishing effort; and the emplacement of an effective, multi-sectoral monitoring system involving both the Government and private sectors.
2.3.3 Employment and income potentials of alternative livelihood projects
The objective of this study, executed by NEDA I, was to assess the potentials of alternative employment opportunities intended to reduce the harvesting pressure on the inshore reef resources in Bolinao municipality. For this purpose, a review was undertaken of alternative livelihood projects currently implemented in Bolinao through various governmental and non-governmental agencies. Data were collected through an interview schedule and the organization of a workshop in Bolinao with staff of the relevant agencies and of the municipality and barangays.
Alternative livelihood projects were prioritized according to a set of criteria developed for this purpose. Points ranging from 1 (low priority) to 3 (high priority) were assigned to each criterion. Negative points were given for projects with adverse environmental impacts owing to pollution, siltation, resources degradation and other negative effects on coastal resources. The criteria included the kind of target beneficiaries, the amount of income and employment generated, the marketability and prices of the products produced, the local availability of raw materials, skills and technologies and the expected environmental impacts of the activities.
A total of 31 activities was assessed, including seven water or marine-based activities, six land-based or agricultural activities and 18 small and medium-sized service/processing activities. Industrial projects and tourism were excluded from the study.
The total number of points ranged from a maximum of 21 for the cultivation of cashew nut to a minimum of 9 for garment production. High points among water-based activities were achieved by the culture of sea cucumber (18), aquarium fishing (18) and siganid cage culture (17). The high ranking of aquarium fishing is subject, however, to a complete cessation of illegal capture methods, in particular, the application of poison. Siganid cage culture requires very high capital inputs.
Among the agricultural activities, bamboo cultivation (19) and cattle breeding (17) gained high points, while salt and rope-making, the production of chop sticks from bamboo and fish paste production ranked high among small and medium-sized services/processing activities.
Although all the above activities are considered environmentally friendly, those which involve the extraction or processing of natural raw materials would need to be accompanied by adequate conservation and management measures.
2.3.4 Community organization and environmental education
Environmental awareness creation and education and community organizing are central requirements for instituting community-based management. Haribon Foundation was entrusted with these tasks, based on its successful record in this field in other localities of the Philippines, as well as its earlier involvement in barangay Binabalian, Bolinao, where aquarium fishermen were trained in environmentally-friendly harvesting practices.
The community organizing process focused on enabling communities to participate actively in resources management in the coastal areas of Bolinao. It aimed at developing their capabilities to be actively involved in the zoning, ordinance formulation, enforcement and regular review of the legal instruments relevant to coastal resources management. The communities' participation was expected to be sustained by the formation of peoples' organizations and, if possible, of a federation of people's organizations in the area.
The community organizing process was implemented through five phases, as follows:
- pre-entry: the identification, hiring and training of community organizers;
- entry: the formal launching and presentation of the coastal resources management programme at the municipal level and in the three selected pilot communities (i.e., barangays Arnedo, Binabalian and Dewey); the hired staff integrated themselves in the assigned communities, principally by participating in their daily activities and community events;
- community organizing: the formation and development of core groups which were later formalized into local people's organizations;
- strengthening of local people's organizations: the identification, selection and training of the organizations' second liners/community volunteers, as well as networking with other like-minded local people's organizations and the media;
- evaluation and pre-phase out: an evaluation of the progress made in community organizing to determine if the conditions had been met which would allow external support to be withdrawn.
For the environmental education programme a two-level strategy was adopted, which comprised intensive educational activities in the three pilot barangays and more sweeping educational efforts addressed to the municipality as a whole. Target audiences included potential leaders, municipal and barangay councillors, elementary and high school students, women and fishermen.
The educational programme also followed a phased structure in which the pre-entry and entry phases comprised research and contact building, the design and administration of a bio-knowledge test on a sample basis and the design and preparation of curricula and relevant information materials, such as an environmental education kit, posters, comics, two videos, slide scripts and other visual aids.
The environmental education sessions comprised formal lecture and slide presentations at community-wide levels, while informal sessions were carried out in small groups. A total of 21 formal educational sessions was held, attended by 278 fishermen, 61 women, 276 high school students, 240 grade students, and 20 staff members from local government units and NGOs.
Four visits were arranged to marine conservation areas in Zambales and Batangas, during which participants had the chance to interact with local leaders. The participants included fishermen, women, and barangay and municipal councillors and staff.
The final phase consisted of an impact evaluation, based on the re-administration of the bio-knowledge test and feedback, to refine the educational materials and methods.
Community organizing efforts in the barangays Arnedo and Binabalian resulted in the setting up of local people's organizations. The organizing effort was unsuccessful in barangay Dewey, owing to its suspected concentration of fishermen who apply illegal fishing methods, especially explosives. The coastal resources management programme withdrew from this barangay because the primary criteria of social acceptability were not met.
In the course of the pilot project activities, the people of Bolinao were forced to decide on the siting of a large cement plant and of a transhipment port in the municipality. On environmental and socio-economic grounds, Haribon Foundation did not endorse the siting of these industries in Bolinao and actively contributed towards disseminating information on their possible adverse environmental impacts at the municipal, provincial and national levels. At the time of reporting, no final decision had been taken.
Following its formal acceptance on 30 July 1993 by the Office of the Prime Minister, Trinidad and Tobago, the Gulf of Paria pilot project became operational in August 1993. The Fisheries Division, Ministry of Agriculture, Land and Marine Resources, was designated the lead implementing agency and assigned a national coordinator to the project. The project was formally closed at a national conference on ICFM, held on 10 April 1995 and attended by some 60 participants from various governmental and international agencies, NGOs, private-sector entities and the media.
At its outset, the pilot project's objectives and implementation strategy were presented and discussed at a national seminar, held on 19 August 1993, on the role of community participation in ICFM.
2.4.1 Management issues
The coastal zone of the Gulf of Paria presented complex coastal zone management issues owing to the quantity and diversity of economic activities. More than 90% of the country's population of 1.2 million resides and works along the west coast and in the watershed areas draining into the Gulf of Paria. The country's two cities, Port of Spain and San Fernando, are both located along this coast.
The Gulf is the most active and commercially valuable fishing area of Trinidad and there are numerous commercial fishing centres along its shores. There are also large numbers of recreational and sports fishermen, mainly based around the north-western peninsula.
The central plains and the river valleys along the southern slopes of the Northern Range and around the Central Range are sites of intensive agricultural activity, e.g., sugar cane, rice, citrus and vegetable farming.
Hydro-carbon deposits are exploited offshore in the south-eastern section of the Gulf and inland on the south western peninsula. There are also onshore deposits of asphalt at La Brea (the Pitch Lake). Large investments have been made in the exploitation of available large gas deposits and in onshore industries for the export of liquefied gas and for downstream processing. Most of the country's industrial activities are centred around Port of Spain, Point Lisas, San Fernando and Point Fortin.
Fisheries management issues include the excessive harvesting rates of most commercial species and the capture of large amounts of juvenile fish in trawl fisheries. Habitat-related management issues include the destruction, degradation and conversion of wetlands, increased sediment loads caused by quarrying and slash-and-burn agriculture, the dumping of solid waste, sewage pollution, the run-off of fertilizer and pesticides used in agriculture, thermal and chemical waste inputs from industries, chronic oil pollution, the dumping of shipboard waste and various types of physical modifications of the coastal area.
2.4.2 Implementation strategy
The pilot project's implementation strategy was to strengthen the capability of the Fisheries Division in order to integrate the sector's concerns into the wider framework of coastal zone management and development planning, with particular reference to the Gulf of Paria. This was achieved through several measures, including the consolidation of the database on the fisheries and on other sectors' impacts on them. Other measures were the creation or enhancement of awareness of the socio-economic and nutritional contribution of the fisheries sector and its dependency on a healthy marine and coastal environment, the promotion of the supportive role of the Fisheries Division in coastal zone management matters and the strengthening of the interaction between the Fisheries Division and other agencies with mandates in the coastal zone.
2.4.3 Information gathering and research
Large numbers of studies exist on aspects of environmental and resources management relevant to the Gulf of Paria. As part of the project, the Fisheries Division conducted an extensive search of these and compiled a comprehensive bibliographic database on the Gulf of Paria, containing 1 182 references and allowing searches by various indices. The computerized version of the bibliography has been made available on-line through the Ambionet, courtesy of the United Nations Economic Commission for Latin America and the Caribbean. Training was provided to staff of the Fisheries Division in the use of the bibliographic software.
In the course of compiling the database, staff of the Fisheries Division contacted many different governmental and non-governmental agencies, including private-sector companies. This led to the production of a directory of libraries and information centres in the country, providing details on the database holdings and services of 26 institutions.
Improved information exchange is seen as a central requirement for integrated planning and management. The project therefore held a national conference on information-networking on fisheries and the coastal zone, attended by 45 participants. The conference recommended that high priority be given to the continued development of the Gulf of Paria database and other coastal zone databases in the country, as an interim stage in the setting-up of a national coastal information network. It also recommended that the Division of Library Services in the Office of the Prime Minister and the Ministry of Agriculture, Land and Marine Resources continue to collaborate in developing these databases, and that a cooperative agreement be developed among institutions contributing to coastal databases and information systems under the coordination of the National Library and Information Service and the Institute of Marine Affairs. The conference also urged the formulation of a national information policy and legislation within which the coastal information network could be developed and operated. GISs provide a powerful tool for the compilation and integration of data on various management aspects and from a wide variety of institutions. In collaboration with the Department of Land Surveying, University of the West Indies, the project developed a pilot GIS on the Gulf of Paria. Fifteen different institutions contributed geo-referenced and attributed data, covering inter alia the coastline of Trinidad and Tobago and part of the Venezuelan side of the Gulf of Paria, bathymetry, shipping, rivers and lakes, roads, administrative boundaries, fishing, agricultural and industrial activities including oil and gas exploration, urban development, water quality sampling points and ecologically vulnerable areas. Several thematic maps were prepared and the relevant layers of the GIS were distributed, in digital format, to those agencies that had contributed to its development.
The issues which need to be addressed in the further development of the GIS are to update and refine some of the data and assign clear responsibilities to various agencies for maintaining and developing their respective data, according to a nationally agreed standard. For this purpose, the formation of an inter-agency task force is recommended. Other recommendations include the maintenance of the fisheries component of the GIS by the Fisheries Division and its expansion to include the whole of Trinidad and Tobago, the training of fisheries staff in GIS use and the development and incorporation into the GIS of appropriate environmental and resources models, such as the water circulation model in the Gulf of Paria, presently under development by the Institute of Marine Affairs.
2.4.4 Community surveys
A central strategy element of the project was to strengthen the involvement of resource users in the management process. A basic requirement for the initiation of a community-based management approach was to learn more about the socio-economic characteristics of the fishing communities and about their views and perceptions on management issues in the coastal area. For this purpose, the project conducted primary surveys of fishing households in two selected communities, Orange Valley and Otaheite, assembled secondary information, primarily 1990 census-data, on the districts in which these two communities lie and conducted a local knowledge survey of over 100 fishermen, sampled along the entire coast of the Gulf of Paria.
The two communities studied had demographic, social and economic characteristics that differed from the national average and from non-fishing communities in the same regions. Fishing families are characterized by larger families, higher fertility, lower educational attainment, lower participation rates in training schemes and higher employment rates but lower monthly income levels. There is greater in-migration to places of present residence and a higher percentage of house ownership but a significantly smaller percentage of land ownership and a high percentage of squatters. Smaller proportions of the population have access to such public amenities as electricity, pipe-borne water and sewage systems.
Over three-quarters of the fishing households interviewed acknowledged that adverse changes had occurred in their working and living conditions during the last decade, owing to such factors as declining fish catches and unfavourable changes in catch composition, the increased costs of fishing, the rise in the numbers of people entering fisheries, the inability to obtain employment elsewhere in the economy, heightened competition from large-scale trawl fisheries and an increase in the costs of education and training. A positive change noted was the improvement to the physical fish marketing facilities.
While a majority of the fishing households interviewed acknowledged the need for community-based organizations, such as mutual self-help fora and government lobbying groups, there was awareness of the reasons behind the decline of past community-based organizations. These included the lack of unity, motivation and leadership, insufficient funding and government support, the lack of an internal structure to channel criticisms and a general inability to implement any activities proposed.
Fishing with bottom-trawls was seen by the fishermen as the single greatest threat to the fisheries in the Gulf of Paria, because of the damage inflicted by this gear on the seabed and on juvenile fish and the destruction it caused to other types of fishing gear. The Government was called on to regulate this fishing method through zonation, restricted areas and times of operation and closed seasons.
In order of priority, other adverse impacts referred to by fishermen included sea-based pollution caused by oil spills, seepages and bilging operations by cargo ships; land-based pollution originating from chemical manufacturing, oil refineries, agriculture and the outflow of sewage; the indiscriminate use of small meshed monofilament gill nets; and the entry of new fishermen into fisheries. Regarding the latter, however, access restrictions should be made subject to the provision of alternative employment opportunities.
The government is perceived as having the ultimate responsibility to regulate activities in the Gulf of Paria, both fishing and non-fishing, and to assist in the formation and strengthening of community-based organizations.
2.4.5 The potential impact of pesticides on fisheries
The coastal land adjacent to the central part of the Gulf of Paria, and in close proximity to some of the main fish landing sites, is intensively cultivated with, above all, sugar cane. Caroni Ltd., a state company owning vast tracts of sugar cane plantations, is the country's largest single user of pesticide, much of which is applied through aerial spraying. There was thus concern about the potential impact of pesticide use on fishing communities and fisheries. The project commissioned a study comprising a review of literature on pesticide use and contamination, as well as a compilation of field records of pesticide usages by farmers near coastal areas and a survey of pesticide importers in the country to determine the types and quantities of imported pesticides and disposal practices of pesticides by these companies. The main findings of this study were as follows:
- agriculture accounts for over 80% of pesticide use in the country, while other users include public health, pest control operators and households;
- out of a total of 1 719 tons of pesticide imported in 1993, about 500 tons were used by Caroni in its spraying programme;
- about 27% of the chemicals marketed in Trinidad and Tobago are extremely, highly or moderately hazardous chemicals according to the classification of the World Health Organization;
- although approximately half the pesticides used were toxic to fish, no significant adverse impacts on fisheries were established in the few localized field studies undertaken in the past; however, there exist oral reports by fishermen of fish kills attributed to pesticide spraying;
- the available capacities for, and frequency of monitoring of, pesticide residuals in water, sediments, fish and other food items is limited;
- some pesticides which are highly toxic to fish, and recommended for restricted use by the Pesticides and Toxic Chemicals Control Board, are widely used;
- the inadequate storage and disposal of pesticides is an added threat to the aquatic environment.
The recommendations of the study include: the strict enforcement of the Pesticide and Toxic Chemicals Act; the use of low-toxin chemicals and alternative methods of pest control; improved facilities for the chemical analyses of fish, sediments and water and more frequent analyses; the incorporation of pesticide use in the coastal GIS; the establishment of a pesticide database containing types, quantities, toxicity and kinds of uses; and the establishment of a system for the proper storage and disposal of pesticides.
2.4.6 Awareness building
Awareness building was another principal strategy element of the pilot project, whose addressees included all levels of government, resource users and the public at large. Specifically, the Gulf of Paria project developed target-specific education materials for schools, community centres and resource users, conducted exhibitions in collaboration with schools and village councils and organized a `clean beach day' along the north-west coast of Trinidad as part of the International Coastal Cleanup. The clean beach day was attended by over 500 volunteers and support staff, was sponsored by 24 companies, received wide coverage in the national media and was instrumental in drawing the attention of large numbers of people to the environmental problems of the Gulf of Paria and the need to protect fisheries. A private company was contracted to assist in the production of a video on coastal fisheries management issues in the Gulf of Paria. The video was featured on various occasions and also shown on national television.
A Curriculum Teaching Aid was developed and distributed for use in secondary schools. It comprised reading materials, a bibliography, a list of resource agencies/persons, notes with practical work, examination questions and other material on ICFM. An ICFM Alphabet Poster was developed, reproduced and distributed to secondary schools and other institutions.
On World Food Day, an exhibition, viewed by about 300 people, was organized on the subject of ICFM/ICAM and on the project activities. An exhibition album was prepared, based on the displayed materials.
2.4.7 Integrated planning, coordination and management
Institutionally, the principal requirement for effective integrated coastal fisheries and area management is improved coordination and collaboration among the various government and non-government entities, including national and local government units, the resource users and the private sector. Given the sectoral orientation of most government departments, such reorientation is a difficult task and can only be accomplished in the medium and long term.
The project was only able to initiate a contribution in this field. It produced a study on the legal and institutional aspects of integrating the Fisheries Division into the development planning and approval process and organized an inter-agency workshop on integrated planning to review the outcome of the study. It also sponsored the attendance of two staff of the Fisheries Division in a regional training workshop on participatory management approaches to natural resources management, held by the Caribbean Natural Resources Institute (CNRI).
The legal and institutional study and the integrated planning workshop reached the following conclusions. First, although the development of the Gulf of Paria GIS and databases enhanced contacts and information flow between the Fisheries Division and other government agencies, the Fisheries Division cannot play the lead agency role in an ICAM process. Steps were therefore taken to establish an inter-agency working group to provide advice and coordination for the ICAM component of the World Bank-funded Natural Resources Management Project. Second, the proposed new Town and Country Planning Act and the recently-passed Environmental Management Act do not appear to provide for consistent procedures of Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA). Third, the Fisheries Division should be formally associated with the approval process of coastal works, including the review of EIAs. In this context, the capacity of the Fisheries Division needs to be strengthened. Since single-project EIAs fail to account for cumulative effects on the marine environment, there is also a need for the preparation of aggregative EIAs. Finally, there is a need to clarify the jurisdictional responsibility for developments outside territorial waters (e.g., offshore oil platforms).
2.4.8 Follow-up activities
Several initiatives were taken to continue various components of the ICFM/ICAM activities in the Gulf of Paria pilot project. A draft project document was prepared by the Fisheries Division and the Institute of Marine Affairs on Trinidad and Tobago/Venezuela ICAM in the Gulf of Paria for possible funding through the Global Environment Facility. This project is expected to be jointly implemented by institutions of Trinidad and Tobago and Venezuela.
The community work is expected to be continued with the assistance of the Caribbean Fisheries Resources Assessment and Management Programme, which is supported by Canadian International Development Assistance. Furthermore, the Nordland Research Centre, Norway, in collaboration with the CNRI, is undertaking research studies in the area of community participation in natural resources management.
Finally, it is expected that a significant proportion of the World Bank Natural Resources Management Project will be devoted to ICAM activities in both Trinidad and Tobago. At the time of reporting, the detailed scope of the project is still under consideration.
At the request of the Kerala State Government, India, the project developed and submitted a draft project document on ICFM. No follow-up on the part of the Kerala State Government resulted from this activity.
At the suggestion of UNDP-DGIP, and the invitation of the organizers, the project coordinator participated as a resource person in the workshop on coastal and ocean resources management, NGO Island Forum, UN Global Small Island Conference, Barbados, May 1994.
The project coordinator participated in the Indo-Pacific Fishery Commission symposium on social and economic issues of coastal fisheries management, held in Bangkok, Thailand, 23-26 November 1994.
The experiences gained and outputs produced in the course of the project found entry into the ongoing work of the FAO Fisheries Department in the field of ICFM, in particular in relation to the elaboration of guidelines on the integration of fisheries into coastal area management and the related article of the International Code of Conduct on Responsible Fisheries.
The short duration of the project and the limited number of pilot project sites make it impossible to draw any firm conclusions on appropriate methodologies and coordinating mechanisms for ICFM. Nevertheless, some lessons have been learned which may facilitate the implementation of ICFM and ICAM activities in future.
The insights gained in the course of implementing the pilot projects largely confirm the findings of the ICAM reviews undertaken at the outset of the project. The complexity of coastal zone management issues clearly increases with economic development and diversification, as other sectors expand and claim an increasing share of such available natural resources as space on land and in the sea, critical habitats, fresh water and other resources. The three sites could be seen as representing different stages along an economic growth/diversification axis with the Gambia and Bolinao at the lower end and the entire coast of the Gulf of Lingayen and the Gulf of Paria in middle to high positions.
As its relative economic importance declines in coastal areas, the fisheries sector is increasingly exposed to adverse environmental impacts by other sectors including, in particular, industry and urbanization, as well as tourism in certain situations.
Institutionally, the management capabilities and capacities of fisheries sector agencies may also increase with economic development as more finance and skilled personnel become available. However, as the Gulf of Paria project indicates, the fisheries sector and its institutions may not carry the economic and institutional weight needed to guide and coordinate a multi-sectoral management process in the coastal area. Furthermore, the capacities of fisheries departments to undertake integrative work is limited by the fact that planning and economic expertise is either scant or absent.
It is thus appropriate to circumscribe the role of fisheries sector agencies to that of integrating fisheries into coastal area management, as reflected in the Code of Conduct on Responsible Fisheries recently adopted by the FAO Conference. Where coastal area management has not yet been undertaken, the role of fisheries agencies may well be the initial spearheading of an ICAM process, which then could be carried forward under the leadership and coordination of another appropriate agency, such as that in charge of development planning or the environment. The need for the agency responsible for fisheries to initiate an ICAM process stems from the fact that in many instances no other sector's productivity is as directly and severely affected by environmental degradation and habitat destruction in the coastal area as that of fisheries.
The initiation of an ICAM process could be a formidable task for the line agency responsible for fisheries because it is normally unused to dealing with inter-sectoral management issues, many of which have their origin on land, and, at times, far inland from the coast. A first step in this regard is to compile all available information on the kinds of existing adverse impacts on fisheries by other sectors of the economy.
A second indispensable step appears to be to raise the awareness of other agencies, resource users and the public at large about the environmental threats to fisheries. It is at this stage that the fisheries sector can establish strategic alliances on environmental management issues whose adverse effects often reach far beyond sectoral fisheries interests. For this purpose, it could be helpful to identify those economic sectors and sections of the population whose interests in resolving specific management problems are complementary to those of the fisheries sector.
A powerful means of awareness building was shown to be the organization of the clean beach day in Trinidad, which brought together many agencies and people around a common and easily understood issue and created considerable media interest. It thus had a large multiplier effect in terms of information dissemination. In addition, the detailed recording of the collected items, if carried out on a consistent basis year after year, will make it possible to draw conclusions on the incidence of solid-waste dumping over time.
In none of the three pilot sites are fisheries agencies consulted on planned developments in the coastal zone, especially on the siting of major industries, tourism facilities and housing. The process set in motion in Trinidad and Tobago is expected to alter this situation in the medium and long term. This is indicated by the fact that in the wake of the pilot project the Fisheries Division was consulted by Town and Country Planning on an ad hoc and informal basis on the siting of a large industrial facility.
Where EIAs become mandatory, fisheries line agencies should become involved, as a matter of course, in the EIA review process for developments in the coastal zone.
In the Philippines, significant powers were devolved to local governments by the 1991 Local Government Code. Municipal governments thus have considerable influence in the siting and specifications of any industrial, commercial or housing structure. This offers a good opportunity for local-level coastal area management, provided that the municipal decision-makers and public are equipped with the appropriate technical understanding and expertise. This is where the inputs of technical line agencies and research institutions, including universities and NGOs, are essential.
The delegation of greater development and management authority to elected bodies of lower government levels is a powerful means to obtain greater participation from the various interest groups in the decision-making process. The extent to which this occurs in practice is likely to depend on the level of organization and awareness of the interest groups. The experiences of Haribon Foundation indicate the kind of progress which can be achieved by means of community organizing and environmental education.
Integrated planning and institutional coordination are frequently listed as the primary requirements for effective ICAM. In practice, both are difficult to achieve and entail significant costs. The difficulties and costs relate to the often cumbersome bureaucratic structures and procedures of government agencies, the complexity of the scientific, technical and economic issues involved and the potentially large number of decisions which need to be taken in an informed way. In addition to high administrative costs, the decision-making process could become so lengthy and protracted that economic development is unduly slowed down.
Many coastal area management issues can be addressed through sound sectoral management, the provision and enforcement of appropriate environmental legislation and a transparent and consultative process for the siting of major coastal developments. The costs of a formal process for the preparation of a coastal area management plan may only be justified in areas of existing or planned intensive multi-sectoral utilization of coastal resources.
There is a need to carefully assess the kind of capabilities and capacities fisheries government agencies and fisheries research institutions should possess in future. There is a clear requirement to strengthen habitat-related expertise as well as expertise in `integrative methods' ranging from GISs to EIA, the economic evaluation of alternative resource uses, rapid appraisal techniques and ecological-economic modelling.
The implementation of the pilot projects was a valuable learning exercise for both the national cooperating agencies and FAO. The learning effect was positively influenced by the fact that, for the implementation of the various activities, maximum use was made of the staff of national governmental and non-governmental agencies. The duration and level of funding of the pilot projects, however, were clearly inadequate.
The extent to which the experience gained in the three sites could be shared was limited to the distribution of project reports. Exchange visits for people involved in the sites were beyond the financial means of the project, not least because of the geographical spread of the pilot sites.
While the selection of pilot sites in three different regions of the world offered some interesting comparative insights, the long distances also resulted in considerable costs in terms of travel and time by the international project coordinator, as well as taxing his endurance to adjust to different time zones. For these reasons, it is advisable that the pilot sites of a single project or programme be confined to one region.
| Dates of Service | |||
| Name | Function | Starting Date | Concluding Date |
| International | |||
| R. Willmann | Project Coordinator | Feb. 1993 | Sept. 1994 |
| M.A. Pettit de Josez | Project Clerk | Feb. 1993 | Aug. 1994 |
| M. Bellemans | Consultant (Statistical advice on fuelwood study) | Nov. 1993 | |
| P.R. Burbridge | Author (ICAM-review) | Sept. 1992 | Nov. 1993 |
| C. Cullinan | Consultant (Review of ICAM legislation in Trinidad) | March 1995 | April 1995 |
| L. Fallon Scura | Consultant (ICAM review and typology/ strategy paper) | Nov. 1992 | Jan. 1993 |
| K. Leenderstsee | Consultant (Socio-economic study of Gambian shrimp fish) | April 1994 | |
| M. Loyche-Wilkie | Technical editor (Gambia mangrove ecology study) | Dec. 1994 | |
| S. Sukardjo | Consultant (Gambia mangrove ecology study) | April 1994 | May 1994 |
| National | |||
| The Gambia | |||
| A. Danso | Fuelwood study | Aug. 1993 | April 1994 |
| M. Kuyateh | Rapid appraisal | April 1994 | |
| A. Saine | Fuelwood study | Aug. 1993 | Oct. 1994 |
| Trinidad | |||
| M. Boodoosingh | Community surveys | Feb. 1994 | April 1995 |
| K. Camps-Campins | Community surveys | June 1994 | April 1995 |
| Y. Esack | Pesticides study | Sept. 1994 | March 1995 |
| L.A. Ferreira | GIS development | Juen 1994 | April 1995 |
| J.A. Georges | Bibliographic databank | Nov. 1993 | Jan. 1994 |
Contractual Services Agreements
Subject matter Implementing agency
The Philippines
Development of a GIS for Bolinao NEDA I
Study on the employment and income potentials
of alternative livelihoods in Bolinao NEDA I
Conduct of a community-based environmental
education programme Haribon Foundation
| Participants | Study |
| The Gambia | |
| 17 government and community fisheries centre staff | Participatory Rural Appraisal |
| 2 governments staff | Database/statistical analysis software |
| 2 government staff | Mangrove ecology |
| The Philippines | |
| 875 municipal staff, community leaders, fisherfolk, pupils | Environmental education |
| Trinidad and Tobago | |
| 6 government staff | Bibliographic database software (CDS/ISIS) |
| 8 government staff | GIS |
| 2 government staff | Community management of natural resources |
| Quantity | Item | Cost (US$) |
| 1 | Computer, Power User PC 486-50 | 3 700 |
| 2 | Software, WordPerfect | 200 |
| 1 | Software, Lotus | 430 |
| 1 | Software, Norton Commander | 95 |
| 1 | Software, DBase IV | 476 |
| 1 | Software, Harvard Graphics | 375 |
| 1 | Software, Statgraphics | 710 |
| 1 | Software, MS Project | 405 |
| 1 | Software, Windows | 87 |
| 1 | Computer, Toshiba laptop 386S, with accessories | 3 350 |
| 1 | Printer, LaserJet 4 | 1 650 |
| Equipment supplied to the pilot project in the Gambia | ||
| 1 | Computer, Compaq Contura Lap-top 386 SL | |
| 1 | Printer, Epson dot-matrix LQ | |
| WordPerfect for Windows, Dbase IV, Statgraphics 6 | 7 300 | |
A4.1 GENERAL
Report of the meeting to review Project INT/91/007 within the framework of integrated coastal area management. Rome, 29-30 March 1993. FAO, 1993. Field Document 1. 26 pp.
Review of the experiences with integrated coastal management projects by UNEP, IUCN and WWF. Mimeo. P.R. Burbridge and V. Burbridge. Rome, 1992. 67 pp.
Typological framework and strategy elements for integrated coastal fisheries management. L. Scura Fallon. Rome, 1994. Field Document 2. 23 pp.
Review of recent experiences in integrated coastal management: ICLARM and URI. L. Scura Fallon. Mimeo. Rome, 1993. 42 pp.
A4.2 THE GAMBIA
Integrated coastal fisheries management in the Gambia. Inception report. R. Willmann. Rome, 1994. Field Document 3. 26 pp.
Management aspects in estuarine shrimp fishing in the River Gambia. Report of a rapid field appraisal in the framework of the integrated coastal fisheries management project. K. Leendertse. Rome, 1995. Field Document 5. 44 pp.
Study of the mangrove ecology in the estuarine area of the Gambia. S. Sukardjo. Rome, 1995. Field Document 6. 35 pp.
The training of selected government officers and fishing community members on the participatory rapid appraisal method (PRA) and conduct of PRAs in selected fishing communities of the Gambia. M. Kuyateh (Ed.). Rome, 1995. Field Document 7. 69 pp.
Fish smoking in the Gambia. Study on fuelwood consumption and costs and earnings. A. Saine and R. Willmann. Rome, 1995. Field Document 8. 50 pp.
Report of the seminar on integrated coastal fisheries management in The Gambia, Banjul, 21 December 1994. Rome. Field Document 9. 13 pp.
A4.3 THE PHILIPPINES
Community-based environmental education for coastal resources management in Bolinao, Pangasinan, the Philippines. Haribon Foundation. Manila, 1996. 119 pp.
Geographic information system for Bolinao, Pangasinan, the Philippines. NEDA I. San Fernando, 1996. 32 pp.
Employment and income potentials of alternative livelihood projects in Bolinao, Pangasinan, the Philippines. NEDA I. San Fernando, 1996. 42 pp.
Proceedings of conferences on integrated coastal fisheries management in Bolinao, Pangasinan, the Philippines. San Fernando, 4 August 1995, and Bolinao, 7 August 1995. NEDA I. San Fernando, 1996. 20 pp.
Integrated coastal fisheries management in Bolinao, Lingayen Gulf, the Philippines. Inception Report. R. Willmann. Rome, 1994. Field Document 4. 26 pp.
A4.4 TRINIDAD AND TOBAGO
Results of community surveys conducted for two fishing communities in the Gulf of Paria. M. Boodoosingh. Trinidad and Tobago Technical Report 2. Port of Spain (Trinidad), 1995.
Results of household surveys conducted for two fishing communities in the Gulf of Paria. K.A. Camps-Campins. Trinidad and Tobago Technical Report 3. Port of Spain (Trinidad), 1995. 36 pp.
Report prepared for the Government of Trinidad and Tobago on legal and institutional aspects of integrating the Fisheries Division into the development planning and approval processes. C.P. Cullinan. Port of Spain (Trinidad), May 1995. 51 pp.
Development of a pilot geographic information system for the Gulf of Paria. L. Ferreira. Trinidad and Tobago Technical Report 6. Port of Spain (Trinidad), 1995. 45 pp.
Pesticide importer survey (1994). Y. Esack. Trinidad and Tobago Technical Report 7. Port of Spain (Trinidad), 1995. 25 pp.
The potential impact of pesticides on the Gulf of Paria coastal fisheries. Y. Esack. Trinidad and Tobago Technical Report 8. Port of Spain (Trinidad), 1995. 71 pp.
Awareness building: development of print and video materials; convening of promotional events. L. Martin. Trinidad and Tobago Technical Report 9. Port of Spain (Trinidad), 1995. 61 pp.
Report of the Chaguaramas Peninsula coastal cleanup. L. Martin. Trinidad and Tobago Technical Report 10. Port of Spain (Trinidad), 1995.
Secondary data on the coastal communities of the Orange Valley and Otaheite regions. E. Mohammed. Trinidad and Tobago Technical Report 1. Port of Spain (Trinidad), 1995.
Results of a fisheries local knowledge survey in the Gulf of Paria. D. Ramjohn. Trinidad and Tobago Technical Report 4. Port of Spain (Trinidad), 1995.
Development of the Gulf of Paria bibliographic database (GULP). S. Soomai. Trinidad and Tobago Technical Report 5. Port of Spain (Trinidad), 1995.
Report of the seminar on the role of community participation in integrated coastal fisheries management. Fisheries Division, Ministry of Agriculture, Land and Marine Resources. St. Clair, Port of Spain, Trinidad and Tobago. Trinidad and Tobago Project Report 1. Port of Spain (Trinidad), 1993. 19 pp.
Report of the training course in Mini-Micro CDS/ISIS Software for library & information assistants. Fisheries Division, Ministry of Agriculture, Land and Marine Resources, St. Clair, Port of Spain, Trinidad. Trinidad and Tobago Project Report 2. Port of Spain (Trinidad), 1993. 11 pp.
Inception report: Project objectives, strategies and activities. Fisheries Division, Ministry of Agriculture, Land and Marine Resources, St. Clair, Port of Spain, Trinidad. Trinidad and Tobago Project Report 3. Port of Spain (Trinidad), 1994. 31 pp.
Report of the national conference on information networking on fisheries and the coastal zone. Fisheries Division, Ministry of Agriculture, Land and Marine Resources, St. Clair, Port of Spain, Trinidad and Tobago. Trinidad and Tobago Project Report 4. Port of Spain (Trinidad), 1995. 15 pp.
Terminal report. Fisheries Division, Ministry of Agriculture, Land and Marine Resources, St. Clair, Port of Spain, Trinidad. Trinidad and Tobago Project Report 5. Port of Spain (Trinidad), 1995.
Report of the consultation on integrated planning co-ordination and management. Fisheries Division, Ministry of Agriculture, Land and Marine Resources, St. Clair, Port of Spain, Trinidad. Trinidad and Tobago Project Report 6. Port of Spain (Trinidad), 1995.
Bibliography on the Gulf of Paria. Fisheries Division, Ministry of Agriculture, Land and Marine Resources, St. Clair, Port of Spain, Trinidad. Fisheries Information Series 5. Port of Spain (Trinidad), 1995. 272 pp.
Directory of libraries and information centres in Trinidad and Tobago. S. Soomai. Fisheries Information Series 6. Port of Spain (Trinidad), 1995. 36 pp.
Gulf of Paria issues. Fisheries Division, Ministry of Agriculture, Land and Marine Resources, St. Clair, Port of Spain, Trinidad. UNDP. FAO, 1993. 6 pp.
Plastics in the coastal and marine environment. Fisheries Division, Ministry of Agriculture, Land and Marine Resources, St. Clair, Port of Spain, Trinidad. UNDP. FAO. Port of Spain (Trinidad), 1995. 6 pp.
A geographic information system (GIS) for the Gulf of Paria. Fisheries Division, Ministry of Agriculture, Land and Marine Resources, St. Clair, Port of Spain, Trinidad. UNDP. FAO. Port of Spain (Trinidad), 1995. 6 pp.
GULP - the bibliographic database for the Gulf of Paria. Fisheries Division, Ministry of Agriculture, Land and Marine Resources, St. Clair, Port of Spain, Trinidad. UNDP. FAO. Port of Spain (Trinidad), 1995. 6 pp.