Back to list of documents

Western Central Atlantic Fishery Commission

Ninth Session

WECAFC - Lesser Antilles Fisheries Committee

Sixth Session

Castries, Saint Lucia, 27-30 September 1999

BASIS FOR COOPERATION (BIOLOGICAL, TECHNICAL, ECONOMIC AND SOCIAL) IN FISHERIES MANAGEMENT AND DEVELOPMENT IN THE WECAFC REGION

ABSTRACT

This paper seeks to outline the role of technical cooperation in the WECAFC region in the light of phenomena associated with the globalization process and sustainable development objectives. Within that context, it discusses the characteristics of the fishery sector in the region, the main fields of technical cooperation relating to the sector and the possible role of WECAFC in strengthening regional technical cooperation.

A. Globalization, sustainable development and the role of technical cooperation

1. The identification and analysis of existing opportunities for technical cooperation among the countries of the WECAFC region should be conducted within the frame of reference provided by two trends that are of major importance in the world of today: the globalization process¹ and the associated efforts being made by the international community to find effective policies for promoting sustainable development.²

2. The most tangible evidence of the workings of the globalization process is primarily to be found in its impact on the financial sector and world trade, while its influence on the production sector, although increasing, has been less notable. Those economies whose level of technological, educational and organizational development, social traits and cultural patterns, etc., enable them to adapt to and participate in this process are deriving significant benefits from it. Those which, for various reasons, are having a difficult time doing so --either with respect to some or all of its aspects-- run the risk of being sidelined from this process and thus missing the opportunities it offers, as well as, perhaps, of seeing major economic and social problems grow more serious.

3. The complex task of promoting sustainable development is also a global undertaking on the part of the international community which calls for the establishment of global regulatory frameworks. Following the crucial 1992 United Nations Conference on Environment and Development (UNCED), it has been proposed that, in the case of fisheries and aquaculture, the promotion of this process should be based on the Code of Conduct for Responsible Fisheries. In this case as well, not all the countries are yet in a position to put the recommendations set forth in the Code into practice. Nonetheless, the fact remains that the globalization process must take place within the framework of a sustainable development process. In the case of fisheries and aquaculture, this means adopting the responsible practices recommended in the relevant Code.

4. Although studies on the subject are not yet available, the globalization process� effects on the fishery sector in the western central Atlantic are presumably concentrated in the areas of trade, tourism and, to a lesser extent, the introduction of new technologies that boost the efficiency of fishery operations, particularly for small vessels. In the absence of adequate regulation, intense pressure from international demand �something which is, for that matter, nothing new in the fishery sector-- could seriously impair the sustainability of valuable fisheries resources, affect fishermen�s employment and income levels, and undermine food security policies in areas where they are of strategic importance.

5. International technical cooperation may be a tool of crucial importance in helping those countries in need of assistance to take advantage of the benefits to be derived from the globalization process from the standpoint of the sustainable development of the fishery and aquaculture sector. Cooperation involving the exchange of technical and scientific information of mutual interest helps to strengthen the relevant countries� capabilities in these fields, but cooperation among countries in the management of straddling fish stocks and highly migratory species is essential and yields tangible economic and social benefits. In the case of WECAFC, technical cooperation among small island developing States is of the utmost importance.

B. Characteristics of the fishery sector as they relate to technical cooperation in the western central Atlantic

6. By virtue of their geographic position, the large number of countries situated around the western central Atlantic are neighbours and need to coexist harmoniously, since this region is actually a sort of basin or semi-enclosed sea. All the countries whose shores are bathed by this ocean have a common interest in protecting the ecosystem, conserving its resources and managing its use.

7. In addition to these inevitable areas of common interest, however, the countries of the western central Atlantic are characterized by their diversity: diversity in terms of their levels of economic and social development and their natural resource endowments, historical, cultural, linguistic and racial diversity, etc. Diversity in the fishery sector �within the framework of the maritime-geographic community of which the countries are unavoidably a part� should, given the presence of a suitable institutional structure, provide a solid foundation for a flourishing and extensive form of cooperation among the countries of the region.

8. Given the countries� firm commitment to pursuing the sustainable development of fisheries resources based on the application of the Code of Conduct for Responsible Fisheries, opportunities for technical cooperation and exchange also constitute a shared need. Given the area�s diversity, such opportunities are mutually enhancing and may thus relate to activities that can be combined with one another at different levels of cooperation in terms of both geographic units (regional, subregional, bilateral, global levels) and subject areas (e.g., trade and the environment, training, implementation of the Code of Conduct for Responsible Fisheries, etc.).

9. Some of the main areas that stand in need of the beneficial impacts of technical cooperation can be identified through an assessment of the status, difficulties and potentials of the fishery sector as they relate to the relevant regulatory framework, in this case the Code of Conduct for Responsible Fisheries. The region�s fishery sector encompasses a unique assortment of development stages, ranging from countries that have reached an extraordinarily high level of economic and social development to others that face extreme difficulties in this realm. Firmly established trends in the production, utilization, consumption and marketing of fish and fishery products are also a factor (updated references are provided in Annex B). The sector includes both an economically and socially important small-scale, artisanal fishery industry that operates in all the countries concerned and more capital-intensive fisheries whose production and marketing practices are fully aligned with the international markets they supply. In most cases the resources to be found in both the small-scale and industrial fisheries are being fully or over-exploited, and the fishing effort in these areas needs to be regulated by means of management practices suited to each case. Another factor to be considered is that, in addition to the fishery resources to be found within a given exclusive economic zone (EEZ), in some instances straddling stocks are also present. Some countries are traditional consumers of fish while others are mainly exporters of these products. Trade flows in the fishery industry are chiefly interregional in nature and are primarily directed towards a single country. The limited opportunities that exist for increasing a catch are based on an improved management of fully or over-exploited resources; the use of unexploited or under-exploited resources on a sustainable basis; the reduction of discards, especially in high-value commercial fisheries; the achievement of higher utilization rates through the use of improved on-board handling and preservation methods; increases in the value added to industrial and small-scale or artisanal production processes; and expanding the output of the aquaculture industry.

10.The institutional and legal systems for implementing these types of management practices �including research, oversight functions and enforcement� suffer from shortcomings in terms of both their regulatory aspects and the material and human resources at their command. The fishery sector will not be able to capitalize upon the opportunities outlined in the preceding paragraph unless it is taken into consideration by macroeconomic policy-makers, unless strategic planning at the sectoral level reflects the existence of that linkage, and unless management systems provide feasible mechanisms appropriate to the economic and social circumstances of each fishery. Fishery research �including the development of relevant technology� has to provide the underpinnings for such systems, and the participation of the interested parties ought to be an essential requirement in both strategic planning and management processes.

C. Foundations for technical cooperation among countries bordering the western central Atlantic

11. Some of the most important areas of technical cooperation in the region in which the countries have already gained valuable experience are listed below.

Research and resource management. Most of the species found in the WECAFC area are, at various levels, considered to be straddling stocks.³

• Technology transfer;


• Training in various fields;


• Sharing of experiences relating to institutional organization and management approaches;


• Intraregional trade, especially with regard to its development;


• Trade and the environment;


• Sharing of experiences relating to the implementation of international programmes of action (reduction of fishing capacity, protection of sharks, protection of marine birds);


• Promoting the application of the Code of Conduct for Responsible Fisheries;


• Harmonizing legislation and policies;


• Application of the Code of Conduct for Responsible Fisheries;


• Cooperation with other international forums (CIP, WTO, CITES, etc.).

12. It should be borne in mind that fishery management and research involve cooperation not only in connection with biological matters but also in economic and social areas. This implies that cooperation in the latter fields should not be confined to management issues but that it instead must encompass other segments of the sector that can benefit from a multidisciplinary scientific approach. During its second session, held in Belize from 8 to 11 December 1997, the WECAFC Working Party on Fisheries Economics and Planning undertook an evaluation of the basic economic and biological information available on the fishery resources of the region. The results of that evaluation are presented in table 2 of Annex A.

13. Because of the region�s geographic characteristics and the developmental diversity of the countries located within it, various types of south-south and north-south forms of cooperation among these countries are possible. This broadens the range of opportunities and benefits that technical cooperation can offer.

D. WECAFC, technical cooperation and the western central Atlantic

14. WECAFC is the only regional cooperation agency whose geographic jurisdiction embraces the entire area covered by this marine region and whose membership includes all of the countries bordering it. At the same time, there are a number of regional bodies with more limited geographic coverage and membership whose specific spheres of activity include technical cooperation activities of a similar nature, in many cases, to those pursued by WECAFC.

15. Making the most of its broad geographic coverage and policy scope, WECAFC has promoted technical cooperation processes relating to straddling stocks and resources through the establishment and activities of specialized regional working parties on resource assessment and on fisheries economics and planning and through the creation of ad hoc groups for research and management of straddling stocks such as shrimp in the Brazil-Guianas area, lobster and flying fish. It has also promoted technical cooperation in the fields of institution-building, policy design, the harmonization of legislation, technology transfer and others.

16. The continuity of the Commission�s work over time and the innovative technical cooperation initiatives that it has undertaken constitute a tangible and readily available asset for its member countries. An assessment of the future scope for technical cooperation in the region suggests that one of the highest-impact scenarios would involve a larger role for existing regional bodies and a leadership role for WECAFC in those spheres of cooperation where its broad coverage is vital; WECAFC would thus play a pioneering role in fields where its importance as a representative body and its prestige as a forum for discussion enable it to set processes into motion that, as circumstances permit, can later be handed over to other organizations. Another highly important function would be to complement the specific activities of other technical cooperation agencies while coordinating its work closely with them and with the member countries. In view of the above, it is difficult to conceive of how the region would fare without WECAFC.

E. Points for discussion

17. The delegates are invited to express their opinions and to share their ideas and suggestions regarding the following questions:

Is technical cooperation relating to the fishery sector a crucial element for the countries of the region in view of the current globalization process and the national and regional objectives of sustainable development and responsible fisheries practices?

What are the most important areas in which technical cooperation can contribute to the implementation of the Code of Conduct for Responsible Fisheries at the national and regional levels?

Given the unique scope within the western central Atlantic of the Commission�s membership and geographic coverage, can WECAFC play a key role in promoting, backstopping, coordinating, strengthening and complementing the types of regional technical cooperation activities that are needed at the present time?

ANNEX A

Table 1. Analysis of major resources in the WECAFC region in relation
to the need for regionwide management
(resources are not listed in order of their importance or priority)

Type of resource	Importance	Shared distribution	Advantages of information sharing	Justification for management at regional/ subregional level	Status
Lobster	High export and tourism value.	Throughout the region (except for the Guianas-Brazil continental shelf) due to extensive dispersion of larvae and migration across portions of the continental shelf.	Inter-country transfer of technical expertise and management experience.   Transfer of data and information for local/regional management.   Determination of the structure of stocks.	Straddling stocks requiring regional management.   Harmonization of management approaches in view of trade implications.	Full or over-exploitation.
Queen conch	High export and tourism value.	Throughout the region (except for the Guianas-Brazil continental shelf and the Gulf of Mexico). Limited dispersion of larvae?	"	Local straddling stocks. Management at the national level a possibility.   Harmonization of management approaches in view of trade implications.	Full or over-exploitation. Listed in CITES, Appendix 2.   Highly vulnerable to over-exploitation and severe reduction of stocks.
Large coastal pelagics (e.g., common dolphinfish, blackfin tuna, mackerel)	Domestic consumption, tourism, recreation.	Wide distribution, highly migratory. Probably confined to the WECAFC region.	"	Straddling stocks requiring regional management.   Joint management of offshore fisheries.	Unknown, but harvesting is rapidly increasing.
Large offshore pelagics (e.g., yellowfin tuna, billfish, swordfish)	High export, tourism, recreational value.	Widely distributed and migratory within and outside the WECAFC region.	"	Straddling stocks requiring international management.   Joint management of offshore fisheries.	In general, full or over-exploitation (see ICCAT).
Large coastal pelagics and deep-sea sharks	Human consumption (domestic).	Widely distributed and highly migratory within and outside the WECAFC region.	"	Extensive straddling stocks requiring regional/ international management.   Joint management of offshore fisheries.	Serious possibility of over-exploitation as by-catches. Biodiversity-related problems due to vulnerability.
Soft-bottom demersals (e.g., croakers, drums, catfish)	Domestically important for human consumption and export.	Wide distribution along continental shelf. Local migration.	"	Straddling stocks requiring subregional management.	Heavy exploitation via by-catches and specialized fishing operations.
Deep-slope demersals (e.g., snappers, groupers)	High export, domestic consumption and tourism value.	Wide distribution along island and continental slopes. Limited dispersion of larvae? Local migration?	"	Local straddling stocks. Management possibly at the national or subregional level.	Full or over-exploitation.
Small coastal pelagics: (a) sardines, herrings	Principal national fisheries.	Local distribution. National restrictions on fishing.	"	Can be managed at the national level.	Ranges from under- to fully exploited.
Small coastal pelagics: (b) (e.g., carangidae, halfbeaks, anchovetas, clupeoids)	Domestically important for human consumption and as bait.	Wide distribution near the coast along island and continental shelves. Limited dispersion of larvae. Migration across portions of the continental shelf is probable.	�   ��	Some straddling stocks. Management at the national level a possibility.	Ranges from partial to full to over-exploitation. One Jenkinsia species is on the IUCN Red List.
Shallow-water reef fish (snappers, groupers, etc.)	Domestically important for human consumption. High export and tourism value.	Wide distribution in coral habitats. Limited dispersion of larvae. Some species migrate across portions of the continental shelf.	"	Local straddling stocks. Can be managed at the national level.	Ranges from fully to over-exploited. Fishing operations have an impact on the health and productivity of the coral reef ecosystem; 13 species in 5 families are on the IUCN Red List.
Flying fish	Domestically important for human consumption.	Distribution and migration across the southeastern Caribbean.	"	Straddling stocks requiring subregional management.	Unknown, but harvesting is increasing slowly, after having expanded rapidly in the 1980s.
Shrimp (e.g., brown shrimp, white shrimp, paste shrimp)	High export value.	Wide distribution; migration within subregions (Guianas-Brazil continental shelf, Gulf of Mexico, Central American/ Colombian continental shelf).	"	Straddling stocks requiring subregional management.	Ranges from fully to over-exploited.
Other locally harvested resources (e.g., octopus, squid, crab, seaweed, sea urchins, coral, etc.)	Locally important.	Ranges from national to wide distribution.	"	Variable.	Variable.
Turtles and marine mammals.	Important for biodiversity.   Nationally important for tourism, aesthetic con-siderations.	Ranges from national to wide distribution.	"	Regional/ international management.	Some populations are endangered.
Source: Report of the Seventh Session of the Working Party on Assessment of Marine Fishery Resources (Belize, 2-5 December 1997).

Table 2. Straddling stocks in the WECAFC region and status of
knowledge concerning stocks and fisheries

Species	Stock parameters	Parameters of fishing effort, by fleet type	Costs of mixed fishing effort	Species price	Shared distribution
Spiny lobster (P. argus)	2	2	2	1	Regionwide dispersion of larvae.
Shrimp (Pennaeus spp.)	2	2	2	1	Wide distribution throughout the region.
Large pelagics:					Highly migratory and extensive straddling stocks.
Pompano dolphinfish (C. hippurus)	2	2	2	1
yellowfin tuna (T. albacares)	2	1	3	1
mackerel (Scomb. spp.)	2	1	3	2
Small pelagics (clupeoids, carangidae mullet, etc.)	2	3	3	2	Probably migrate across portions of the continental shelf.
Groupers and snappers (Epinephelus spp.; Lutjanus spp.)	2	2	2	1	Some species migrate across portions of the continental shelf.
Flying fish (H.affinis)	2	2	2	1	Straddling stocks.
Soft-bottom demersals	2	2	3	2	Some species migrate across portions of the continental shelf.
Sharks	3	3	3	2	Migratory species and straddling stocks.
1: All the countries; 2: Some countries; 3: No country. Source: Report of the Second Session of the WECAFC Working Party on Fisheries Economics and Planning (Belize, 8-11 December 1997).

Table 3. Possible non-straddling stocks constituting nationally important
resources in the region

Resource	Stock parameters	Parameters of fishing effort, by fleet type	Costs of mixed fishing effort	Species price
Snail (S. gigas)	1	2	2	1
Common octopus (O. vulgaris)	2	2	2	1
Reef fish	2	2	2	2
Source:Report of the Second Session of the WECAFC Working Party on Fisheries Economics and Planning (Belize, 8-11 December 1997).

ANNEX B

Trends in the production, utilization, consumption and marketing of
fish in the member countries⁴ of WECAFC

INTRODUCTION

1. Any attempt to analyse issues relating to the fisheries that fall within the purview of WECAFC must take the complexity of the sector into consideration. Indeed, one of the mainstays of the sector is the economic, social, cultural and fishery-related diversity of this geographic region. This study draws upon recently compiled information to update existing assessments of production, utilization, consumption and marketing trends in the WECAFC region. A brief discussion is also presented of existing development constraints and of a number of considerations relevant to the sector�s sustainable development.

A. Production trends

2. The distribution of the catches of many countries whose shorelines are either partially or entirely on the western central Atlantic are not solely a function of this body of water. The figures on the total catches of the countries in the WECAFC region also include output from other fishing grounds and from inland bodies of water. In 1997 the breakdown of the region�s total catch, by origin, was as follows: 22% from the western central Atlantic, 73% from other fishing grounds and 5% from inland bodies of water. An examination of the long-term trend in the distribution of catches by origin shows that in 1972 the corresponding figures were 33%, 61% and 6%, respectively. The total catch for 1997 amounted to 8.363 million metric tons (mt) (see Table 2), or slightly less than twice as much as the 1972 catch, which was estimated at 4.381million mt.

3. The trend in catches during the period 1989-1997 was fairly stable in a number of respects. The total catch in the WECAFC region in 1997 was 1.819 million tm, or 1.9% of the total world ocean catch for that year (see Table 1). It should be noted that this value falls within the range of figures posted during the period 1989-1997. Within this time frame, the catch ranged from a low of 1.571 million mt in 1992 to the peak 1997 figure of 1.819 million mt. The United States� catch accounts for a major share of the regional total, but the absolute and relative growth rates of the other countries have been gradually climbing, and by 1997 the latter accounted for 51.1% of the total.

4. In addition to the potential of natural fisheries, aquaculture has contributed a moderate share of the regional supply of fishery products. Its output has held fairly steady, according to the available records, at around 500,000 tons per year. Its present position notwithstanding, in some of the countries aquaculture offers one of the most feasible ways of increasing the supply of fish and fishery products in the region.

B. Utilization

5. A first-level breakdown of the utilization of fishery products which distinguishes between direct and indirect human consumption demonstrates that for the region as a whole the total supply of fishery products for the population has jumped by approximately 86% between 1971-1973 and 1991-1993. The net per capita supply rose by 19% during that period, as did the use of fishery products for indirect human consumption. This was far below the growth rate (109%) registered for fishery production during the same period. If the United States� figures for the volume of catches and their utilization rates are excluded from the calculations, then it may be seen that the increase in the catch destined for indirect human consumption in developing countries during that time period amounted to 95.7%, or 12.7% of the catch in 1971-1973 and 11.5% in 1991-1993 (see Table 4). During the period 1994-1996, its share amounted to 13.9%.

C. Imports

6. The share of the total supply of fish and fishery products (live weight) represented by imports in the WECAFC region was 47% in 1971-1973, but by 1991-1993 the corresponding figure had declined to 34%. If the statistics for the United States, which is a net importer of fish, are factored out of the calculations, then the share of imports falls to 23% and 18% for those two periods, respectively. For the period 1994-1996, the proportion of imports amounted to 26%. The United States, Brazil, Colombia, Cuba and Mexico account for 93% of the WECAFC member countries� fish imports, measured in live weight.

7. In terms of value, the imports of the countries in the region have been gradually rising (see Table 5), reaching US$ 8.252 million in 1997. Imports of fresh, chilled and frozen fish accounted for 34.5% of the total value, while frozen crustaceans and molluscs represented 44.8%.⁵ The large proportions of the region�s total fish imports represented by these two categories have remained quite stable since at least 1984. In order to obtain a clear picture of what is happening in relation to these imports in the rest of the countries, however, it is best to exclude the United States from the calculations, since it accounts for a full 89% of the total in value terms.

8. The composition of imported products also turns out to be quite different if the United States is factored out of the calculations. When this is done, the relative share of imports of fresh, chilled and frozen fish remains more or less the same (35.2%), but the proportion of frozen crustaceans and molluscs falls sharply (from 48.8% to 7.9% of imports) and the percentage of imports represented by dried, salted and smoked fish rises steeply (from 5.1% to 29.6%), as does the share of tinned fish (see Tables 6 and 7). Dried and salted fish is imported primarily by Haiti, Jamaica and the Dominican Republic in the Greater Antilles, by the countries of the Lesser Antilles and by Brazil, which accounts for 30% of the region�s imports of these products. Imports of fresh, chilled and frozen products have increased significantly since 1986, with the fish products in this category expanding at a more moderate pace than crustaceans and molluscs. In most of the countries that import sizeable amounts of frozen products, the tourism industry often generates a significant portion of the demand for fishery products. Imports have generally grown at a moderate pace during the past five years.

D. Exports

9. When calculated in terms of live weight, the WECAFC region�s exports climbed by 315%, on average, between the periods 1971-1973 and 1991-1993. In 1994-1997, the exports of the countries of the region accounted for 19% of output (measured in live weight), or 16% if the United States is not included in the figures.

10. The exports of the WECAFC member countries rose slightly, although with some fluctuations, between 1994 and 1997 (see Table 5). In 1997, they totalled US$ 5.004 million. Chilled and frozen fish represented 45% of the total, while frozen molluscs and crustaceans accounted for 40.2%, with tinned fish trailing far behind. The combined exports of all the countries of the region other than the United States amounted to US$ 2.178 million in 1995 (41% of the total). The growth rate of the exports from these countries as a group was quite high for the decade. It should be noted that the United States market has been an extremely important destination for the exports of the WECAFC member countries.

11. In relation to trade in fish and fishery products, the region encompasses a wide variety of situations, with some countries running deficits in this category and others posting surpluses. If the countries are divided into different categories for purposes of this analysis, it may be seen that a sizeable group of countries in the Greater and Lesser Antilles together with Brazil have trade deficits; in each case, this is attributable to the existence of ingrained consumption habits, certain relative price structures, and a relative shortage or abundance of fishery resources. The countries that have surpluses primarily export species and products having a high commercial value, such as shrimp, lobster and tuna.

E. Consumption

12. Table 3 illustrates the increase in the total food fish supply occurring between the average periods 1971-1973 and 1991-1995 (from 5,015.2 to 8,327.2 metric tons). These figures also represent a net increase in the per capita supply, which rose from 11.4 kg to 13.6 kg (an increase of 19%). If the United States is excluded from this group of countries, then per capita supply climbed from 6.6 kg to 7.9 kg (a 19.7% increase) (see Table 4). In the short run, if the periods 1991-1993 and 1994-1996 are compared, it may be seen that the growth of the total supply and of the net per capita supply of fish has continued, with the latter rising to 14 kg for the WECAFC region. This overall figure, which is very close to the world average, no doubt conceals sharp differences in consumption levels from one country to the next and between rural and urban areas. It is interesting to note that during this period there was a consistent rise in the amount of the total supply provided by imports (in terms of volume), since exports (also measured in terms of volume) contracted at the regional level, although it is also true that the exports of the countries other than the United States, taken as a group, actually rose. Another interesting point is that, if the United States is not taken into account, the per capita consumption levels of the rest of the countries, taken together, has increased disproportionately as compared to the regional total. There is not a single country in the region that has not witnessed a net increase in supply; in other words, the expansion of supply has outpaced population growth in every case.

F. Comments on certain aspects of the demand for fish

13. An analysis of the demand for fish and fishery products at the regional level should be regarded as no more than a general indicator which sums up a number of phenomena that are common to that group of countries. In order to conduct a more accurate analysis of the situation, it is necessary to examine national and/or subregional aspects of demand. This is also why it is necessary to look at the characteristics of the demand for fish and fishery products in the island nations and in mainland countries within the WECAFC region in order to see how they may differ in terms of eating habits, consumption traits and fishery resource potentials. Consideration also needs to be given to the social impact that the availability of fish has on local coastal communities and on large segments of the population for which fish is the only accessible source of animal protein.

14. The countries of the Greater and Lesser Antilles are characterized by a per capita level of fish consumption that is substantially higher than the world average, considerable constraints as regards the availability of fishery resources and a high level of fish imports. The mainland countries generally (with the exception of Guyana) have a per capita consumption level below the world average, a high rate of exports (especially of species having a high commercial value) and very limited access to such products in the domestic market (high prices, poor distribution and marketing). Coastal inhabitants and communities depend very heavily on fish for food and on fishing for their livelihood.

15. The demand for fish and fishery products in the countries of the region has been influenced by the consolidation of new types of trade-related phenomena. At present, the most buoyant growth poles for the demand for fish and fishery products are exports, especially to the United States market, and the tourism industry, which can be regarded as representing an indirect export. In many countries, the domestic market has been confined to non-exportable species and imports of products for which there is consumer demand, such as dried salted fish. Within the context of the domestic market, it would be instructive to study the workings of the process whereby other foods that offer the consumer economic and supply advantages are being substituted for fish, especially in countries where fish has traditionally been part of the diet.

16. Another point to be considered is that any income effect that might have a positive influence on domestic demand is offset by the upward trend in the prices of fishery products on the international market. It may therefore be assumed that, in the long run, a growing number of species that are currently regarded as being unsuitable for export will begin to be sold abroad. This will put additional pressure on the supply and prices of fish sold on the domestic market.

17. An apparently well-reasoned argument could be made that the protein contained in fish that are sold abroad at a good price will be or could be converted into a larger quantity of imports of lower-cost proteins. Unfortunately, in the absence of specifically designed policies concerning this issue, the reasoning that underlies the above argument is rendered invalid by the fact that, in a market economy, resource allocation is guided by considerations of economic profits, and it would be unreasonable to assume that this type of a mechanism will lead so handily to an automatic substitution of protein-rich foods.

G. Important issues relating to the sustainable development of the sector

18. As discussed earlier, the fishery sector has made a positive contribution to the food supply of the countries of the region. This is also an activity that has deep social and cultural roots and that occupies an important position within the economy and society. Accordingly, the analysis of how supply can be made to cover the level of demand that may exist in the year 2010 is an issue that refers not only to fisheries but also to economic, fishery, educational, technological, scientific and other policies.

19, As a preliminary assessment, in view of the limited nature of the available supply of commercially viable fishery resources, it may be projected that increases in supply could be achieved through:

• Higher yields resulting from a better management of fully or over-exploited fishery resources;
• The use of unexploited or under-exploited resources on an economically feasible basis;
• A reduction in discards, especially in the case of fisheries having a high commercial value;
• An increase in the utilization of catches obtained through the use of improved on-board handling and preservation methods;
• The incorporation of more value added in the production processes of industrial and artisanal fisheries;
• A substantial increase in the output of the aquaculture industry.

20. Any attempt to address these issues must take their underlying economic and social aspects into consideration. The objective of maintaining or augmenting the contribution made by fish and fishery products to the diet of the region�s population calls for the use of suitable macroeconomic and sectoral policies, including the following:

• The adoption by artisanal fishermen of innovative organizational structures;
• Institutional innovations in fishery management that provide for effective research, efficient enforcement and oversight, and the integration of the fishery sector into coastal management systems;
• The establishment of marketing and distribution systems, linked to resource management systems, which would make fish and fishery products physically and economically accessible to consumers;
• The use of economically viable fishery technologies to optimize yields and to conserve resources and protect the environment;
• The introduction of genuinely enforceable and legally binding legislation and regulations;
• The establishment of effective fishery management systems and procedures whose coverage includes straddling stocks and high-seas fishery resources.

Table 1. Share of WECAFC countries in world catches, 1989-1997

Year	World catch	WECAFC catch	Share	USA/ WECAFC catch	WECAFC excluding USA	Share
	(a)	(b)	b/a*100	(C)	(b-c)	c/b*100
1989	86818	1730	2.0	973	757	43.8
1990	83255	1685	2.0	874	811	48.1
1991	84396	1723	2.0	891	832	48.3
1992	85263	1571	1.8	749	822	52.3
1993	86468	1791	2.1	942	849	47.4
1994	91398	2157	2.4	1239	918	42.6
1995	91557	1757	1.9	857	900	51.2
1996	93177	1709	1.8	794	915	53.5
1997	93329	1825	2.0	889	936	51.3
Source:Based on data published in the FAO Yearbook of Fishery Statistics (Catches), Vol. 84 � 1999.

Table 2. Catches, by origin, of the countries in the WECAFC region (mt) selected years

		Inland bodies of water				Western Central Atlantic				Other seas					TOTALS
		88	93	97		88	93	97		88	93	97		88	93	97
North America		209296	165555	151900		1372000	1262942	1210150		5365736	5197651	5137024		6947032	6626148	6499074
USA		60217	54377	38348		1107738	942118	889321		4431143	4526721	4082385		5599098	5523216	5010054
Mexico		149079	111178	113552		264262	320824	320829		934593	670930	1054639		1347934	1102932	1489020
Central America		975	5755	9812		9868	11092	12815		151385	200605	201116		162228	217452	223743
Belize		1	1	0		1497	1526	1223						1498	1527	1223
Costa Rica		300	865	3500		310	199	307		16060	14515	22806		16670	15579	26613
Guatemala		473	4228	5121		82	92	285		2250	3262	1490		2805	7582	6896
Honduras		50	86	100		6529	4274	3000		10527	18983	10410		17106	23343	13510
Nicaragua		114	547	1000		1450	5001	8000		3090	2621	4000		4654	8169	13000
Panama		37	28	91		0	0	0		119458	161224	162410		119495	161252	162501
Greater Antilles		2172	4438	3340		102856	68344	87100		137449	33012	17219		242477	105794	107659
Cuba		340	933	1172		77079	41546	58110		137449	33012	17219		214868	75491	76501
Haiti		300	600	500		5200	5000	5130.0						5500	5600	5630
Jamaica		332	650	600		7531	9485	7758						7863	10135	8358
Puerto Rico		0	0	0		1611	1552	2634						1611	1552	2634
Dominican Rep.		1200	2255	1068		11435	10761	13468						12635	13016	14536
Lesser Antilles and other		21	0	1		47544	50351	54770						51734	51157	55056
Antigua and Barbuda		0	0	0		1500	580	500						1500	580	500
Anguilla		0	0	0		397	330	360						397	330	360
Netherlands Antilles		0	0	0		1210	1205	1100						1210	1205	1100
Aruba		0	0	0		550	250	205						550	250	205
Bahamas		0	0	0		7200	10073	10439						7200	10073	10439
Barbados		0	0	0		9097	2852	2764						9097	2852	2764
Bermuda		0	0	0		773	393	457						773	393	457
Dominica		0	0	0		500	794	850						500	794	850
Grenada		0	0	0		2001	2105	1408						2001	2105	1408
Guadaloupe		21	0	0		8170	8600	10500						8191	8600	10500
Cayman Islands		0	0	0		112	125	115		274	320	200		386	445	315
Virgin Islands (USA)		0	0	0		686	890	930						686	890	930
Virgin Islands (UK)		0	0	0		1284	757	950						1284	757	950
Martinique		0	0	0		3000	5840	5000						3000	5843	5000
Montserrat		0	0	0		58	160	46						58	160	46
St. Kitts and Nevis		0	0	0		800	250	161						800	250	161
St. Lucia		0	0	0		782	1195	1311						782	1195	1311
St. Vincent and the Grenadines		0	0	1		752	1461	1324		3895	483	85		4647	1944	1410
Trinidad and Tobago		0	0	0		7587	11033	15000						7587	11033	15000
Turks and Caicos		0	0	0		1085	1458	1350						1085	1458	1350
South America		270887	246766	288771		259094	385511	454732		702311	663590	734088		1232292	1295867	1477591
Brazil *		190566	186990	210000						623997	530100	540000		814563	717090	750000
Colombia		48685.0	30538	20609		10564	9881	7838		27364	83381	127070		86613	123800	155517
Guyana		800	800	625		35680	43323	56584						36480	44123	57209
French Guiana		0	0	0		5477	6931	7702						5477	6931	7702
Suriname		126	187	150		3558	9313	12850						3684	9500	13000
Venezuela		30710	28251	57387		203815	316063	369758		50950	50109	67018		285475	394423	494163
TOTAL		483351	422514	453824		1791362	1778240	1819567		6361050	6095664	6089732		8635763	8296418	8363123
0= More than zero but less than one half of the unit used. Source: Based on data from the FAO Yearbook of Fishery Statistics (Catches), Vol. 84 � 1999.

Table 3. Composition of total and per capita fish and fishery product supply in the WECAFC region (in thousands of tm)

Periods	Output	Minus fish meal and other non-food uses	Plus imports	Minus exports	Total food fish supply	Population (in millions)	Per capita supply
Average 1971/73	4380.9	1228.2	2364.6	442.1	5015.2	438.2	11,4
Average 1991/93	9156.9	1463.3	2862.5	1836.0	8327.2	610.1	13,6
	+ 109 %	+ 19 %	+ 21 %	+ 315 %	+ 86 %	+ 39,2 %	+ 19 %

Average 1994/96	8931.5	1494.3	3157.2	1709.7	8900.1	638.0	14.0
Change from 1991/93	- 2.5 %	+ 2.1 %	+ 10.3 %	- 7.0 %	+6.9 %	+4.6 %	+ 2.9 %
Source: Based on data from the FAO Yearbook of Fishery Statistics (Capture Production), Vol. 87 � 1997, and WECAFC/75/8 of September 1975, "Crecimiento y Desarrollo del Sector Pesquero en el Atlántico Centro Occidental".

Table 4. Composition of total and per capita fish and fish product supply in
the WECAFC region (in thousands of tm) (excluding USA)

Periods	Output	Minus fish meal and other non-food uses	Plus imports	Minus exports	Total food fish supply	Population (in millions)	Per capita supply
Average 1971/73	1667.9	212.6	347.6	236.1	1506.8	229.3	6.6
Average 1991/93	3484.9	416.1	504.1	385.8	2780.9	350.7	7.9
	+ 108.9 %	+ 95.7 %	+ 45 %	+ 63.4 %	+ 84.5 %	+ 52.9 %	+ 19.7 %

Average 1994/96	3278.5	454.6	813.0	520.1	3116.8	371.0	8.4
Change from 1991/93	- 6 %	+ 9.2	+ 61 %	+ 34.8 %	+ 12 %	+5.8 %	+ 6.3 %
Source: Based on data from the FAO Yearbook of Fishery Statistics (Capture Production), Vol. 81 � 1995 and WECAFC/75/8 of September 1975, "Crecimiento y Desarrollo del Sector Pesquero en el Atlántico Centro Occidental".

Table 5. Countries of the Western Central Atlantic:
Apparent consumption of fish and fishery products - Average live weight (mt)

		Output		Non-food uses		Imports		Export.		Food supply		Population (000's)		Per capita supply
North America		6979940		1284986		2383357		1374825		6711169		358132		18.7
USA		5652974		1039741		2344218		1189658		5775460		266990		21.6
Mexico		1326966		245245		39139		185167		935709		91142		10.3
Central America		245922		114256		47133		87599		93719		26455		3.5
Belize		2131.0		0		393		1130		1408		213		6.6
Costa Rica		25568		2		26704		30505		21782		3553		6.1
Guatemala		11535		0		4081		5763		9899		9978		1
Honduras		26210		1		3324		18501		13372		5654		2.4
Nicaragua		14617		2		2347		11645		5318		4426		1.2
Panama		165861		114251		10284		20055		41940		2631		15.9
Greater Antilles		139184		207		136632		16905		258821		28820		9.0
Cuba		96868		183		44501.0		14014		127275		10963		11.6
Haiti		5567		0		13884		105		19346		7561		2.6
Jamaica		14340		24		35696		1536		48479		2473		19.6
Dominican Rep.		22409		0		42551		1250		63721		7823		8.2
Lesser Antilles and other		48220		44		49200		13719		83695		3473		24.1
Antigua and Barbuda		523		0		1288		120		1692		66.0		25.8
Netherlands Antilles		1040		0		2632		143.0		3528		205		17.2
Aruba		170		0		468		3		635		82.0		7.8
Bahamas		9718		15		3279		6643		6338		280		22.6
Barbados		3051		1		4577		268.0		7388		264		27.9
Bermuda		425		0		2049		0		2473		62		39.9
Dominica		856		0		1195		-		2051		71.0		28.9
Grenada		1566.0		18		1038		359.0		2227		92.0		24.2
Guadaloupe		9319		1		10443		18		19743		424		46.5
Cayman Islands		645		0		801		354		1091		32		34.1
Virgin Islands (USA)
Virgin Islands (UK)
Martinique		4869		2		12927		47.0		17747		379		46.9
Montserrat
St. Kitts and Nevis
St. Lucia		1201.0		0		1511		9		2703		144		18.8
St. Vincent and the Grenadines		1379		0		603		361		1628		110		14.8
Trinidad and Tobago		13458		7		6389		5394		14451		1262		11.4
South America		1518266		94822		540901		216699		1752781		221114		7.9
Brazil		825103		80018		425282		45421		1124947		159339		7.1
Colombia		147482		1501		96844		99378		148436		38545		3.8
Guyana		45399		0		833		5987		40244		830		48.5
French Guiana		7762.0		0		2406.0		5010		5298		147		36.1
Suriname		13539		0		971		2745		11765		409		28.8
Venezuela		478981		13303		14565		58158.0		422091		21844		19.3
TOTAL		8931532		1494315		3157223		1709747		8900185		637994		14.0
0 = More than zero but less than one half of the unit used.
�= Data unavailable. Source: FAO Yearbook of Fishery Statistics (Capture Production), Vol. 84 � 1997.

Table 6. Imports and Exports of the WECAFC Member Countries, 1994-1997
(in thousands of dollars)

			Imports					Exports
		94	95	96	97		94	95	96	97
North America		7202058	7231260	7162131	8252436		3710457	4091337	3886838	3675444
USA		7043431	7141428	7080411	8138840		3229585	3383589	3147858	2850311
Mexico		158627	89832	81720	113596		480872	707748	738980	825133
Central America		49712	50210	54324	79462		396277	421526	512796	579517
Belize		707	966	740	789		13253	15760	12427	17933
Costa Rica		23985	22022	27485	47811		104864	126131	215852	251370
Guatemala		7954	8771	3866	6212		31365	23253	27518	16213
Honduras		4590	5630	6153	9313		87421f	50828f	63289	50350
Nicaragua		1319	1930	1805	2278		53081	80786	78305	81246
Panama		11157	10891	14275	13059		106293	124768	115405	162405
Greater Antilles		79454	102426	113402	96636		107683	146152	160822	125345
Cuba		18672	27317	21951	16692		103359	126717	130334	97643
Haiti		3350f	4213f	4099f	6709f		2094f	4724f	4169f	11064f
Jamaica		28597	32275	50729	26346f		1592	12322f	25706	14835f
Dominican Rep.		28835f	38621f	36623f	46889f		638f	2389	613f	1803f
Lesser Antilles and other		109367	126905	100300	55779		93223	91707	89713	87823
Antigua and Barbuda		1940f	1828f	1851f	2105f		420f	661f	647f	890f
Netherlands Antilles		7672	10561	4106f	5668f		148	144	1077f	833f
Aruba		1929f	1972f	1211f	2014f		20f	...	...	599f
Bahamas		6433	7662	7510f	2982f		60951	57360	55760	60660
Barbados		6891	8144	7633	9505		349	871	637	1536
Bermuda		9250f	7061f	5677f	7180f		-	-	-	-
Dominica		1357	3047	1676	1500f		...	...	6f	4f
Grenada		1302f	1794	2214	1220f		1260f	3739	3097	1942f
Guadaloupe		25182	30393	24232f	3110f		230	266	187f	-
Cayman Islands		3147	2538f	1135f	463f		13730f	10821f	10943f	6769f
Martinique		34196	38658	28315f	8011f		161	168	192f	-
St. Kitts and Nevis		328f	2176f	2170	2305		197f	153	119	69
St. Lucia		3977	4347	4923	2160f		-	-	-	8f
St. Vincent and the Grenadines		569	960	1067	1034		654f	1097f	897f	664
Trinidad and Tobago		5124	5555	6343	6467		8813	10009	11812	10183
Turks and Caicos		70f	209f	237f	55f		6290f	6418f	4339f	3666f
South America		378231	553534	621557	622942		593284	551858	490185	535700
Brazil		261453	397574	481552	483598		178548	160133	133876	126477
Colombia		95962	118656	113986	110782		259259	249322	203413	217843
Guyana		633f	168f	2099f	350f		16685	21880f	19531	28290f
French Guiana		4502	5136	5441f	2988f		36255	40495	41360	35909
Suriname		765f	641f	1058f	1548f		3470f	3407f	7914f	12661f
Venezuela		14916	31359	17421	23676		99067	76621	84091	114520
TOTAL		7818822	8064335	8051714	9107255		4900924	5302580	5140354	5003829
f: FAO estimates based on the available information; � : data unavailable as a separate series but included under another heading; - : specified in the original source as "none" or "negligible" with no other indication of quantity. Source: FAO Yearbook of Fishery Statistics (Capture Production), Vol. 85 � 1997.

---

1		The term "globalization" is used here to refer to the current phase of the world economy, in which close interrelationships have arisen among the countries as a consequence of the stage of development reached by transport, communications and electronic information processing and transmission capabilities. This is mainly �although not exclusively� a technical and economic phenomenon, but it has been accompanied by changes in the widest conceivable range of human activity.
2		At its 94th session, the FAO Council, which is composed of member countries and serves as this institution�s governing body, defined sustainable development as the management and conservation of the natural resource base and the orientation of technological and institutional change in such a way as to ensure the coverage and ongoing satisfaction of human needs for present and future generations. Sustainable development, thus defined, should safeguard the genetic resources of the earth, water, flora and fauna, should not degrade the environment, and should be technically appropriate, economically feasible and socially acceptable.
3		A detailed analysis of the major resources, their economic significance, their shared distribution, the reasons justifying their regional or subregional management and their present harvesting status is provided in the Report of the Seventh Session of the Working Party on Assessment of Marine Fishery Resources (Belize, 2-5 December 1997). Table 1 of that report has been reproduced in Annex A. Cooperation among the relevant countries in establishing an appropriate resource management system constitutes the most concrete, the primary and the most essential responsibility to be addressed within the framework of the sustainable development of the region�s fishery sector.
4		The term "country" as used in this document also includes territories and provinces. Its use does not reflect any decision or view on the part of FAO regarding the legal or constitutional status of any country or territory or its borders.
5		"Importancia social y económica de las pesquerías de naturaleza regional o subregional en la región de la WECAFC", Second Session of the Working Party on Fisheries Economics and Planning (December 1997).