Food and livelihood security 

The ancestral system of the Pehuenche mountain range sustains food and livelihood security through a diversified and resilient set of practices rooted in the ecological dynamics of the southern Andes. Homegardens (huertas familiares), primarily managed by Indigenous women, form the foundation of family nutrition and self-sufficiency. These multifunctional spaces host at least 284 species and 543 cultivated varieties used for food, medicine, ornamentation, and rituals. Crops such as quinoa, maize, pallar beans, potatoes, chili peppers, and aromatic herbs are complemented by fruit trees—tumbo, quince, winter pears (peras de pascua)—and fodder species such as alfalfa and oats. These gardens contribute directly to balanced, nutritious diets and generate surpluses that can be exchanged through traditional systems of reciprocity (trafkintu). 

Wild gathering further enhances food security and provides ecological and economic stability. Over 171 non-timber forest products (NTFPs) are collected in the territory, including the edible seeds of pewen (Araucaria araucana), wild mushrooms, berries, medicinal herbs, and fibers for weaving and crafts. The gathering of these products strengthens community resilience and supports forest conservation by giving ecological and cultural value to native ecosystems. 

Transhumant livestock farming (veranada-invernada) complements the system, connecting lowland winter pastures and high-altitude summer grasslands. Families raise cattle, sheep, goats, and horses that supply meat, milk, wool, and manure for crops. This rotational use of pastures prevents overgrazing, allows for ecosystem recovery, and provides income through the sale of cheese, meat, and handicrafts. Together, these interdependent practices ensure year-round food availability, diversify livelihoods, and reinforce adaptive capacity to climate variability and market pressures. 

Agrobiodiversity 

The Pehuenche territory is a biodiversity hotspot, hosting an exceptional variety of native and introduced species that thrive in altitudinal gradients from 200 to 3,655 meters above sea level. The system maintains a high level of agricultural diversity, integrating species adapted to temperate forests, mountain valleys, and volcanic slopes. Homegardens are centers of agrobiodiversity conservation, where traditional and introduced species coexist, supporting pollinators and ecological balance. Crops of pre-Hispanic origin—quinoa, maize, chili pepper, and pallar beans—coexist with medicinal and aromatic plants like matico, maqui, maiten, palo negro, and parrilla. These species are selected for their nutritional and therapeutic value and maintained through generations by women who preserve seeds and traditional recipes. 

Forest ecosystems play a central role in biodiversity conservation. The pewenales (Araucaria forests) are emblematic of the system, providing edible seeds, shade, and habitats for endemic fauna such as woodpeckers, owls, and foxes. The sustainable collection of piñones (pewen seeds) is deeply intertwined with cultural identity and provides seasonal nutrition and income. Furthermore, the coexistence of agricultural lands, native forests, and wetlands promotes ecological connectivity, soil fertility, and water regulation. 

Transhumant grazing contributes to maintaining ecological mosaics by favoring the regeneration of pastures, dispersing seeds, and enhancing nutrient cycling. The diversity of livestock—criollo goats, cattle, sheep, and horses—ensures resilience against disease and environmental stress. The system’s integrated use of biodiversity reflects coevolution between people and ecosystems, creating an adaptive model of mountain agriculture relevant to global discussions on agrobiodiversity conservation and climate resilience. 

Local and traditional knowledge systems 

The Pehuenche system is guided by the principles of Azmapu (the natural and moral law of coexistence) and Kimün (ancestral wisdom), which frame the relationship between people, land, and all living beings. Knowledge is transmitted orally through stories, songs, rituals, and communal labor (kelluwün). This knowledge encompasses ecological understanding, resource management, weather forecasting, and healing practices based on plants and nature’s cycles. The dynamic adaptation of these practices allows communities to respond to environmental changes without losing cultural continuity. 

Women are key custodians of traditional knowledge. They manage homegardens, select seeds, prepare food, and produce herbal medicines for both people and livestock. Knowledge about plant associations, pest control through biodiversity, and soil management ensures sustainable production without external inputs. The practice of trafkintu—the exchange of seeds and knowledge among families—facilitates genetic diversity and social cohesion. 

Herders also apply ecological knowledge when managing transhumance, interpreting landscape signs to decide seasonal movement. The timing of veranada and invernada is determined by the flowering of certain plants, snowmelt, and the appearance of specific bird species. Ceremonies such as offerings to Pachamama and the pewen symbolize the reciprocity between humans and nature. This intergenerational transmission of environmental knowledge reinforces resilience, governance, and community cohesion in a rapidly changing context. 

Cultures, value systems and social organization 

Culture and agriculture are inseparable in the Pehuenche territory. The worldview of the Mapuche-Pehuenche people conceives the land (Wallmapu) as a living entity and the pewen as a sacred ancestor linking past, present, and future generations. Values such as Itrofil mogen (respect for all forms of life), Küme mogen (living well), and Ayüwn (solidarity and affection) guide daily life and production practices. Ceremonies like Nguillatún and We tripantu (the Mapuche new year) renew spiritual and social ties, aligning agricultural and pastoral activities with cosmic cycles. 

Social organization is based on reciprocity and cooperation. The principles of ayni and minka ensure collective work in sowing, harvesting, and managing water. The concept of trafkintu extends these exchanges to knowledge, seeds, and products, reinforcing networks of trust and social stability. Community governance systems are structured around local lof (territorial units) and associations that promote collective decision-making and equitable resource distribution. 

Cultural continuity is also expressed in gastronomy, crafts, and oral traditions. The preparation of traditional foods such as catuto (toasted wheat bread) and muday (fermented drink) embodies shared identity and resilience. These cultural expressions strengthen belonging and ensure that agricultural heritage remains a living, adaptive tradition. 

Landscapes and seascapes features 

The Pehuenche landscape encompasses 830,234 hectares of remarkable environmental diversity, from temperate forests and wetlands to glaciers and volcanoes. The altitudinal gradient—ranging from 200 to 3,655 meters above sea level—creates a natural laboratory for vertical complementarity, where different ecological zones are used seasonally and sustainably. Forests cover more than half of the territory (54.1%), while grasslands, shrublands, and agricultural lands occupy another 35%. This spatial diversity underpins ecological stability and productive diversity. 

The landscape is also a cultural and spiritual mosaic. Homegardens near dwellings merge into native forest, pastures, and transhumant routes. The pewenales dominate the scenery, representing both a livelihood resource and a sacred site for ceremonies. Wetlands and rivers function as ecological corridors connecting high mountains with valleys, while terraces and eras (small cultivated plots) prevent erosion and maximize the use of volcanic soils. 

Approximately 36% of the system overlaps with state-protected areas and UNESCO designations, including the Kütralkura Global Geopark and the Araucarias Biosphere Reserve. These protections reflect the global ecological significance of the area, while the co-governance initiatives established with Indigenous communities demonstrate innovative models for participatory conservation. The Pehuenche system thus exemplifies a living cultural landscape where agriculture, biodiversity, and spirituality coalesce into a sustainable and resilient territorial model.