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1. I would like to thank FAO and the Working Party for this opportunity to present the case of the northern, rural women.
2. I work in the Ministry of Agriculture with issues concerning rural development and with a special responsibility for rural - and farm women policy. This implies policy-making in budgets, government policy papers, entrepreneurial programmes, funding, training, conferences etc.
3. The theme of this case-study is "challenges facing rural women in the next decade and their contribution to the decision-making process". In the presentation I will use statistics, research and some of my own experiences and thoughts.
4. The Nordic countries consist of Norway, Finland, Sweden, Denmark, Iceland (and the self-governing islands of Greenland, Færøerne and Åland). One thing that divides the countries is their relation to EU. Whilst Denmark, Finland and Sweden are EU-members, Norway and Iceland are not. Our connections to the EU are via the EEA (European Economic Area) which consists of EU and the EFTA countries except for Switzerland.
5. The five Nordic countries on Europe’s northern border have a great deal in common, both socially and culturally. We have a long tradition of co-operation enabling citizens to live, work and study anywhere in the Nordic countries. Class distinctions hardly exist and there is a high degree of social equality in all of the countries. The public administration of the Nordic countries is rather similar, with an emphasis on openness to the citizen. Democracy also demands that there is transparency in public administration and political processes.
6. The Nordic model of society is based on a representative democracy with the equal right for everyone to vote for their representatives. Every person has the right of free opinion and the ability to influence decisions that affect oneself and one’s own life. These could be decisions concerning politics, economy and social matters.
7. In politics, you can gain power by being elected or you can use your power by voting. This is the electoral channel. There are also other channels of power like the corporate channels which represent the power of interest organisations such as labour unions and employer organisations, the public administration and experts, boards etc. (In Norway with our 4,3 million inhabitants we have 800 different publicly appointed boards with 5.000 members). Power through these channels is to a large extent defined by the formal role of the channel, the strength of the network, the number of people supporting the issue, lobbying, etc.
8. In Norway, Sweden and Denmark, a large survey will be carried out to examine the power structures in our societies. Power can exist in structured systems like bureaucracies and companies and in less structured systems like politics and the free market. The further away from the individuals power is exercised, the more difficult it is to take part and feel that you can influence decisions. This might in the long run threaten the nature of democracy. Over the next 5 years research institutions will investigate who has power in society and which factors influence the opportunities of individuals to take part in decision-making. They will focus on which channels exist, what influences the power structures, to what degree do politics, bureaucracy, economic life and trade have - and use - power. The survey is called "power and democracy" because of concerns that the changes in society now effect the power-relations between politics and economic life. The mandate of the survey gives sex, age and socio-cultural factors an important role.
9. In the Nordic countries, the citizen has the opportunity to influence decisions through formal structures. First there is the right to direct participation in political parties. But the legislation also gives inhabitants access to democratic participation in local institutions (e.g. school-boards), an open participatory process in local government (e.g. working groups in local planning) and by involving a wide range of NGO’s in policy development. This diversity of democratic involvement gives a large proportion of the population access to decision-making, but at the same time poses the question; where is the power and who has the real power?
10. For me decision-making is to be in a position where you can influence your own life and surroundings. The decision-making position will not necessarily be given to you - you need to want to influence decisions. On the way to gaining a decision-making role there will be hindrances because those with power may not be interested in sharing it.
11. This case-study presents some of the challenges of the rural women in decision-making in the next decade. There are no statistics on the prerequisites for rural women’s decision-making or what the necessary conditions are for gaining power. The question is: what do women in rural areas need in order to be able to take part in decision-making in society? I have chosen four factors that can have an impact on rural women’s participation in decision-making:
12. For each of these I will present some gender related statistics on the present situation and current trends for the Nordic countries to give you an idea of the region. On this basis I will point out some of the challenges. The challenges will mainly concentrate on the Norwegian situation.
13. First I need to stress the term "rural women" and the definition of rurality as these are essential platforms in the discussion of challenges.
14. The characteristics and the content of rurality have changed over the last decades, and so rural women have also changed. Or we could say that rural women have changed rurality. Through this we also see new possibilities in arenas of decision-making and channels of power.
15. How can we describe this new rurality and the new rural women? Some define rurality as population density, distance from an economic centre - and a relatively high proportion of people employed in a primary sector (agriculture, forestry or fishery) or self-employed. This definition describes rurality along the lines of geography, employment and demography. What about social relations - do they define rurality?
16. A Norwegian geographer named Agnete Wiborg has written an article on the new rurality. I use her descriptions and present what we can call the old and new rurality in Norway. This is of course a general picture that describes some areas but not all.
| Rural areas of the past | Present/modern rural areas |
| Inhabitants have mainly social relations within the village and the same working relations if "outside" the village | Inhabitants have social relations also outside the village and many different working relations "outside" the area |
| Common interests in production (e.g. agriculture, hunting, fishing, industry) | Common interest in spare-time activities, social welfare and service |
| Agricultural (or primary sector in general) interests are the same as the village interests | Agricultural (or primary sector) interests are the interest of a minority |
| Clear rules for social behaviour | Less clear rules for social behaviour |
| Strong relations neighbour/family/relatives within the area/village | Social relations selected out of common personal interests also outside the area/village |
| Identity given by social background, class, sex | Chosen identity (influenced by role models, media) |
| NGOs for social welfare and benefit for the whole society (mainly women) | More informal networks, clubs, groups with individual and specialised interests |
17. Individuality, freedom of choice and social fragmentation are important characteristics of a modern society. Whereas participation in decision-making positions earlier could follow social background, class and sex, the freedom of choices have now opened for new people to involve themself and join in these positions. This is a great challenge for women.
18. The technology development we have seen especially the last years have to a high degree effected the rural areas. Access to information is now independent of local newspapers and the "small-talk" at the post-office. Now you can follow international news directly on your PC, and the connection from the global directly to the individual are much closer than before, where information went through the national or the local channels.
19. Rural areas have often been seen as the opposite of the urban areas. It might not be that simple any more. Rural areas - and the people living there, have become more similar to the urban areas and the people living there. This makes it difficult to define who is urban and who is rural. Both rural and urban women come in a variety of age, interests, knowledge and skills, personalities, background and experiences, and this makes it difficult to describe them as a group. Many people could pose the question whether I, born on a farm, now living in Oslo but working with agriculture and rural women, could call myself a rural woman? Or is my sister, living on a small farm up in the mountains and working with international tourism, a rural woman? Who are the "real" rural women - is it the farm-women or the coastal/fishery women? Is there elements of rurality connected to occupation, set of values, background, place of living or political standpoint?
20. This is a long and interesting discussion that I will have to leave here. I have made it easy for myself by choosing a definition of rural women as women living outside the city.
21. The table shows the population, area and population density in the Nordic countries:
| Denmark | Finland | Iceland | Norway | Sweden | |
| Population (million) | 5.2 | 5.1 |
0.27 |
4.3 |
8.8 |
| Total km2 | 43 094 | 338 145 |
103 000 |
323 758 |
410 934 |
| Population density (inab. pr. km2) | 125 | 18 |
2 |
13 |
21 |
Source: Nordic statistical yearbook, Nord 1997:1
22. One of the similarities between the Nordic countries is the low population density. Norway is one of the most rural countries in Western Europe with only 13 persons per square kilometre. There are 18 in Finland, 21 in Sweden, 125 in Denmark and just 2 in Iceland. The average in the EU is 145 per sq. km. The settlement patterns vary between the Nordic countries: Sweden has large areas with no settlement whilst Norway has a scattered settlement throughout the country. This can be explained by differing regional and agricultural policies.
23. The low population density make the rural regions very vulnerable. Communities in Norway have traditionally depended economically on agriculture, forestry and fishery. Still this is a fact for about ¼ of our 435 municipalities, although the decline in the number of farms and jobs in the primary sector is large. The number of farms holdings in Norway is 74 958, of them 89% are run by men and 11% are run by women (1996). The agricultural sector employs about 5% of the Norwegian population. The main agricultural production in the Nordic countries is carried out in Denmark and in the southern part of Sweden. The average size of farms are smallest in Norway and Finland.
24. If the population in an area falls under a critical level, it is difficult to obtain services such as local primary schools, post office, public transportation, local retail businesses and the spare-time activities. The lack of services make it even more difficult for those who remain. It is a major challenge for the authorities and the local inhabitants to maintain and to use local services.
25. What we have seen in the last years is that young people, in particular young girls, migrate from the rural areas to the urban areas. About 65 percent of young girls leave the rural areas due to marriage, education or job opportunities. Only 15 percent return to the place where they were raised. This trend has increased the last years.
26. The population data from the 18 counties in Norway show that, in the 20 to 40 age group, there are more men than women in the rural and more remote counties, and more women than men in the more urban counties.
27. In general the population in the Nordic countries is ageing. The percentage of inhabitants under 50 years old is decreasing and the percentage above 50 will increase in the next decades. Because life expectancy is higher for women than for men, a relatively higher proportion of elderly people are women.
28. Over the past 30 years up until the mid 1980s, the trend has been towards declining fertility rates in all of the Nordic countries and even fell below the rate needed for full reproduction. From the mid 1980s the trend was broken and the fertility rate is slowly increasing.
29. In Norway the statistics show that 48,6% of the population is single (1995). The divorce rate is 48% (1994). 31,1% of all children are under the age of 2 and 73% of all children aged 3 - 6 are in day care (1995). Day care facilities are better in the rural areas than in the urban areas. In Norway the mother or the father can have a maternity leave of 42 weeks with 100% of your wage or 52 weeks with 80% of your wage. Of these weeks 4 can only be used by the father.
30. The educational level in the Nordic countries is relatively high. The table below shows the highest level of education obtained, segregated by sex.
| Highest level of education | Men | Women |
| Secondary level (USA - High school) | 26% | 32% |
| Post-secondary level (USA - College) | 54% | 50% |
| Higher education at college and university level (USA - Graduate school) | 21% | 18% |
Source : SSB, 1994
31. These numbers are rapidly changing. For the upper age groups men have a higher education level than women, in the lower age groups the opposite is true. Already there are more female than male students obtaining a post secondary education and it seems that in the future there will be more women than men, in all age groups, with a higher education.
32. In education there is a clear segregation between what subjects women and men choose. The two dominant vocational programmes in the Nordic countries contain subjects related to trade, craft and industry, as well as commerce and business. Within the trade, craft and industrial programme, 80-90% of the students are boys, and within the commercial and business programme 50-70% are girls. In other studies, girls dominate in the fields of care and health, home economics, service industries and education. Boys form the majority in agriculture, forestry, fishery, transportation and communications.
33. The following table shows the employment (and number of unemployed) in each of the Nordic countries (all numbers in 1 000);
| Denmark | Finland | Iceland | Norway | Sweden | |
| Employed | 2 534 | 1 914 | 135 | 2 092 | 3 963 |
| Unemployed | 222 | 477 | 5 | 107 | 347 |
Source: Nordic statistical yearbook, Nord 1997:1
34. The following numbers show the percentage of men and women employed and unemployed between 16-64 years of age in the Nordic countries (1996);
| Denmark | Finland | Iceland | Norway | Sweden | ||||||
| women | men | women | men | women | men | women | men | women | men | |
|
Employed |
74.9 |
83.5 |
67.7 |
72.4 |
81.9 |
89.7 |
74.0 |
83.4 |
75.6 |
80.0 |
|
Unemployed |
9.04 |
7.19 |
18.62 |
21.14 |
4.10 |
3.50 |
4.94 |
4.81 |
7.52 |
8.54 |
Source: Nordic statistical yearbook, Nord 1997:1 (ILO)
35. In Norway 46% of the work force is female. The differences between what women and men choose are also clearly notable here. The occupations were women dominate are characterised by the provision of services, treatment and care whereas material values are more typical in men’s occupations. About 40% of the women in Norway work part time (1992).
36. Two-thirds of unpaid work is performed by women, one-third by men. This work implies work in the home, and the care of the elderly and children.
37. The labour market in rural areas provides work primarily in the primary sector (agriculture, forestry, fisheries) and public sector (schools, health, technical infrastructure). Also the private sector as trade, craft and construction, tourism, accounting and law are present.
38. The public sector in the Nordic countries employ about one-third of all employees. Through the 1970s and 1980s there was an expansion in the public sector that created a large demand for employees in occupations traditionally chosen by women (e.g. health and education). By the end of the 1990s, more than half of employed women work in the public sector. There is now a stagnation of new jobs in the public sector mainly due to reduced budgets and privatisation.
39. If we look at power and influence in the labour market, we can see that there are very few women in leadership positions in the private sector, both in management and on boards. Men are holding most of the leadership positions - this tendency is stronger the larger the firm.
40. There is also a wage difference between men and women in the Nordic countries. Men devote most of their time to work outside the home while women divide their time between family and work outside the home. Men therefore obtain higher wages faster than women. This tendency is stronger in the private as compared to the public sector.
41. As pointed out earlier, rurality and women have changed. Young women, both the ones from rural areas and those from urban areas, now obtain a higher education. Those who graduate today expect to find a job that suits their educational background and career expectations, rather than creating a job themselves. The suitable job for well educated, young women might not be easy to find in the rural areas. Projects in schools try to create more entrepreneurial spirit among the pupils to overcome this problem. Pupils at primary and secondary level are offered to run their own businesses as a part of their ordinary education. They have to use local resources and ideas to create products or services with a market potential.
42. In Norway, we now have a stagnation of new jobs in the public sector. This effects women, and especially rural women since many of them work locally in the public sector such as health, services and schools. In many parts of the country, these might be some of the very few job opportunities for rural women. A job provides the opportunity of a having a network and taking part in public life.
43. For the rural women already living in rural areas, there is also a need for training courses on a flexible schedule. Courses on relevant themes can give women more confidence to take part in local decision-making, and it also provides a network with other women and men.
44. Agriculture is a sector that still employs a certain amount of rural people. The Inheritance Act in Norway specifies that the eldest child, boy or girl, will have the first right to inherit the farm from his/her parents. Traditionally men have taken over the farm. Only 20% of the farms that are effected by the inheritance Act goes to women. Agriculture is, of course, a job opportunity for rural women. It is also an opportunity for women to have more power in a sector where they represent vital resources such as a different view upon sustainability, new ways of solving problems - and a positive attitude to co-operation. The Ministry of Agriculture in Norway is, together with the farmers unions, encouraging girls to make use of their rights. This right provides both economical value (property) and a job opportunity. It also represents the opportunity to influence the future of a sector that is undergoing a lot of changes. The last years a more market-oriented agricultural policy has led to reduced subsidies. This have made it difficult for many small farms, and about 2.000 farms close down their activity every year. The areas are rented out and the remaining farms are growing bigger. An increasing number of farmers work outside the farm; in 1995 farm women laid down 56% of their working hours outside the farms while farm men laid down 38% of their working hours outside the farm.
45. Additionally, there are several public efforts to stimulate women to self-employment, and not only in agriculture. Funds, training, counselling and networks are offered in combination with economic support. Evaluations show that these efforts give results and that women as business-owners have become more visible in society.
46. A public committee appointed by the Ministry of Agriculture in Norway made earlier this year a survey and a plan of action on how to transfer more power to farm women. The committee defined equal opportunities in agriculture as the sharing of power between women and men, including property ownership, capital, influence and decision-making. The committee selected seven strategies with the main goal to recruit and give women more power within agriculture. The strategies were:
47. Under each strategy several concrete measures were planned, totalling about 30 measures. Some of them are easy to implement, others will demand more time and money. The work was financed through the Agricultural Agreement. We hope that some of these measures will succeed and give women in agriculture a stronger voice.
48. We believe that agriculture needs women to make wise decisions concerning production, health and care. And the farmer unions, agricultural authorities and local government need women to widen their perspectives. It is important that women go into agriculture on their own terms, not just as a second hand on the farm. That means they should have an equal influence on decision-making on the farm and in the social and economic organisations within agriculture.
49. Equal opportunities in employment imply that both women and men are economically independent, having an equal economic position and influence. This is not yet true. There are few women in leadership positions in both the public and private sectors. There is a great challenge to recruit more women into leadership positions in all sectors. This demands a change in attitudes of those in leadership positions today, and it might require a change in the idea of what are considered good leadership skills. Women, with their resources, must be seen as a positive and necessary contribution to companies. And women must see themselves as an important resource with something unique to contribute.
50. The Nordic countries have a relatively high representation of women in leadership positions in politics. For many years Norway had a female Prime Minister and the Nordic countries have had several strong and visible women party leaders.
51. In other high political positions the percentage of women and men are (from the elections in 1994, numbers from 1997 in brackets):
| Parliament elections | Parliament | County councils | Municipal councils | ||||
| women | men | women | men | women | men | ||
|
Denmark |
1990 (1994) |
34 (34) |
66 (66) |
29 |
71 |
26 |
74 |
|
Finland |
1991 (1995) |
39 (34) |
61 (66) |
- |
- |
30 |
70 |
|
Iceland |
1991 (1995) |
24 (25) |
76 (75) |
- |
- |
22 |
78 |
|
Norway |
1993 (1997) |
39 (36) |
61 (64) |
39 |
61 |
29 (33) |
71 (67) |
|
Sweden |
1991 (1994) |
33 (40) |
67 (60) |
43 |
57 |
34 |
66 |
Source : Nordic statistical yearbook, Nord 1997:1 and Statistics Norway 1998
52. These numbers show that the proportion of women in the parliament is decreasing in some of the Nordic countries. On the other hand, there has been an increase in women politicians at the municipal level.
53. Women are most poorly represented among senior administrators (not politicians) in the ministries - between 80 and 100 per cent of these high officials are men (1995).
54. In Norway, there is an Equal Gender Act, passed in 1979 that requires there should be no less than 40 percent representation of both sexes in publicly appointed boards, councils and committees. This provision is not binding for political parties. Nevertheless, it has proved to be an effective guideline as the average representation in such public bodies is about 40%. Also the use of quotas has been an effective tool to ensure the representation of women in politics.
55. The corporate channels in the rural areas consist of non-governmental organisations with a political aim, such as labour unions, farmers unions, farm women unions etc. Organisations for spare-time interests; crafts, sports, music, care for elderly, church, scouts and youth are also potential power structures. Most people in the Nordic countries have joined or have been a member of organisations. Numbers from Norway show we have 16 million members of organisations - and we are just 4,3 million people. Sweden in particular has a strong network of women organisations and groups which are now registered in a database. This gives power in the form of visibility.
56. In most countries, women are less represented than men in many of the arenas where policies are outlined. As the statistics show, Norway has a relatively high proportion of women in political positions. After some years, we are now able to see the results of a high female representation in politics in political priorities. These are particularly obvious in the fields of child and family policies including measures to facilitate the combination of work and family responsibilities.
57. It is very important that women are represented in politics. But women must be nominated and elected to political bodies in sufficiently large numbers. It is documented that the proportion of women must exceed a certain level in order to ensure that gender-specific views and values have a real impact. A 30 percent proportion of women appears to be a critical minimum.
58. In Norway the corporate channels are strong. Before a decision is taken - or a suggestion raised, there is often both formal and non-formal contacts between the different interests or parts of the decision. There are many agreements on negotiations and co-operation between the authorities and non-governmental organisations. An example is the Agricultural agreement where the budgets for the subsidies to agriculture are set in negotiations between the farmers unions and the Government represented by several governmental ministries.
59. It is also important that women are involved in decision-making processes at the local level. This involvement can go through electoral or corporate channels. The important factor is that women realise and show their resources through public participation - and that the local environment invite them use their resources. An old woman might have a great knowledge of culture, tradition and administration. Young girls might broaden their perspectives by living outside of the village for some years and have both new ideas, experiences and knowledge. They both represent important resources for their local community.
60. Most of us gathered here also have a certain power and the ability to effect decisions. This session gathers people working for rural women and we have a certain power to create and change things through our formal positions, personal influence, knowledge and attitudes.
61. Mass media produces and forms pictures of our world. Access to media therefore implies power. Those who have this access choose, consciously or not, which information will be spread and in what form it takes.
62. Men are much more visible than women in mass media. Moreover, women and men are often presented differently and given different roles. The picture media present of women is important as it creates role models for other women.
63. Women are needed within mass media in order to make women, and issues of particular concern to women, visible. The proportion of women among journalists has increased dramatically. In the beginning of the 1990s, the proportion of women was between 28 and 49% in the Nordic countries, but in leadership positions men form the majority.
64. The challenges for rural women according to media can be seen from different angles. Rural women should be represented amongst journalists in the national and local press, and rural women should be visible and presented in a professional manner both in the national and local press. The media is both a tool for women already in decision-making positions and a channel for presenting role models and social awareness. And of course there is also a challenge to ensure the sex distribution among those in leadership positions.
65. We have heard that young girls are leaving rural areas and few of them return. The reasons for leaving are many: a professional career is easier to obtain in the cities, young girls dream of a life other than their mother’s, small villages feel too narrow-minded (there might not be enough space to behave untraditionally or unconventionally). The girls lack relevant local female role models, and there are often few jobs that fit into their future plans.
66. Statistics shows that women in the Nordic countries devote more time to culture such as theatre, concerts, ballet, opera and museums, than men. They also read and buy more books and visit the library more than men. And, they spend more time on social activities, such as visiting friends and family, than men. On the other hand men watch more TV than women, especially sports programmes, and they also attend more sports events than women do.
67. As stated earlier, in general women and men have different spare time interests. The most obvious examples may appear in the rural areas where men might have easier access to their interests. Many social and cultural activities in rural areas are often those that men favour, like hunting and fishing, and this does not necessarily attract younger women. For a woman to get involved and influence the local surroundings she might need a network and other women with the same interests as hers. Involvement locally through different activities and organisations is important training for further involvement in decision-making at different levels. A viable local community demands involvement from the local people, and the local people can to a certain extent decide what kind of the activities they want. If women do not raise their voices and are not willing to work for their ideas they will lose to the stronger interests.
68. It might not be enough to maintain the traditional culture and identity in the area. New ideas and trends seem to be important especially for young girls. Through their time outside the rural area they have experienced a different life and they might want to continue to engage in some of the more urban cultural and social activities (cafes, cinemas, galleries etc.). Many youth who are hesitant to return to their respective communities say that the lack of interesting friends and a network are the most important arguments for their decision. They have now gained knowledge, experiences and other perspectives and feel that they have "grown away" from their old schoolmates and friends.
69. Although difficult, but it seems that some pilot projects where the municipalities have been very active are successful in attracting young, well educated people. In one municipality a project leader keeps in contact with and informs students who are studying outside their area about employment opportunities. Then the municipality tries to make the social and cultural circumstances as good as possible for the "newcomers" by creating a network with a lot of activities.
70. The factors I now have been through are what I recognise as some of the biggest challenges for women in their participation in decision-making in the next decade. But there are also other factors that are vital for the society in making use of the resources of women. One of these factors is knowledge and information.
71. The work for women’s rights and the promotion of women’s decision-making and power has to a large extent been difficult. The difficulties are often rooted in attitudes, but another difficulty has been to get the correct information about the situation. Information is needed to raise consciousness, persuade policymakers, promote changes, and to monitor and evaluate policies and actions that are taken.
72. There has been, and still is, a lack of accurate, timely, relevant and user-oriented statistics on the situation of women compared to that of men. Without such facts, women’s contribution to the national economies will also remain invisible and underestimated. Those who design databases have a strong influence on what information we receive. I found one interesting article in a statistical magazine that reported an overwhelming majority of men were employed in the Statistics Norway, and the majority grew in the higher levels of leadership.
73. The statistical concepts and definitions must be changed in order to attain a more realistic picture of women’s and men’s activities in the family, the economy, the political and the social spheres. All statistics relating to individuals should be collected, analysed and presented by sex and reflect gender issues in society. We look forward to the coming analysis on the power structures in our society where the mandate clearly focuses on women in decision-making. The board of this project consists of two women and two men, and the advisory council consists of 12 women and 11 men.
74. The other area where there is a great lack of segregated data is between rural/urban. Both demographic data and data on people’s lives such as work, representation in organisations, positions etc. are not divided by rural/urban. These data effect people’s choices and should to a much larger extent be reflected in the statistics.
75. As we all know, men and women often think and act differently but complementary to each other. The resources of both sexes should therefore be represented in all spheres of life. Including more women in public life means including new experiences and perspectives, and this will widen the repertoire of innovative ideas and solutions. In the Nordic countries we see many good results of the long struggle for women’s rights. We see and experience that where women take part in decision-making, wise decisions are taken. The good results inspire us to continue the long process of full integration of women in economic, political and social life.