4.1 Micro-encapsulated larval diet
4.2 Diets for warm water omnivores
4.3 Diets for warm-water carnivores
4.4 Rainbow trout
Eleven of the twelve countries covered in this report lie within the climatic belt 30 degrees latitude from the equator. Tunisia, although situated north of this tropical belt, lies in the southern Mediterranean and therefore has a climate not unlike that of the tropics throughout much of the year.
Although trout culture has been traditional to at least three of the countries (India, Mexico and Venezuela), recent interest in all twelve countries has been development of aquaculture based on more rapidly growing indigenous warm water species. Development of appropriate diets for these species is therefore essential.
The main objectives in diet formulation for aquaculture are to: (a) satisfy all known nutrient requirements for growth of the species; (b) minimize feed cost; and (c) select and use ingredients that will result in products that are readily utilized to minimize wastage.
The nutrient requirements of most of the local species of fish are not known with certainty. It has been demonstrated, however, that most warm water species that take to artificial feed grow well on diets formulated for common carp, a species on which much of its nutrient requirements are already known. It is a matter of time before the nutrient requirements of the other species are determined. In the meantime, however, the need is for low cost diets that can be efficiently utilized for profitable farming of these species.
With the above objectives in mind, a number of diets were formulated for testing in each of the twelve countries visited. Some of these tests were undertaken during periods of the consultant's visits. The diets were formulated for most of the finfish species identified for mass culture in these countries. Table 4 lists those species and their natural feeding habits.
Tables 5, 6 and 7 specify the essential nutrients and their recommended levels in practical aquaculture diets.
The levels for warm water species are based on present recommendations set for common carp and channel catfish, respectively. Many warm water omnivores, including the tilapia, for which precise requirements of some nutrients, notably the essential amino acids, have not been determined, have responded well to carp diets. Similarly, diets formulated for the basically carnivorous channel catfish have been very successfully applied in Thailand in commercial culture of Clarias batrachus, another carnivorous species whose dietary requirements are still not known with precision. Therefore, until nutrient requirements of the other warm water species of interest to aquaculture are established, the present recommendations permit the formulation of diets that will support growth sufficiently to make commercial production of those species feasible.
The recommended nutrient levels for trout diets take into account availability and cost of raw material in the countries concerned. Because optimum growth in trout requires dietary protein levels that too often are difficult to achieve with local ingredients, the suggested diets are those that can be prepared under constraints of local feed ingredient supply, and at the same time provide for adequate growth rates.
Table 4 - Major Aquacultural Species (Finfish) raised on artificial feeds
Species Name |
Common Name |
Habitat |
Natural Feeding Habits |
Countries |
Cyprinus carpio |
Common carp |
Fresh, warm water |
Omnivorous |
All twelve countries |
Labeo rohita |
Rohu |
" |
" |
India, Nepal, Sri Lanka, Thailand |
Catla catla |
Catla |
" |
Plankton feeders |
India, Nepal, Sri Lanka |
Cirrhinus mrigala |
Mrigal |
" |
Omnivorous |
India, Nepal, Sri Lanka |
Sarotherodon niloticus |
Tilapia |
" |
" |
All twelve countries |
Tilapia guineensis |
Tilapia |
" |
Herbivorous |
Nigeria |
Sarotherodon mossambicus |
Tilapia |
" |
Omnivorous |
Nigeria, The Philippines |
Ophiocephalus striatus |
Snakehead |
" |
Carnivorous |
Thailand |
Pangasius sutchi |
Large catfish |
" |
" |
Thailand |
Clarias batrachus |
Catfish |
" |
" |
India, Thailand |
Clarias lazera |
Catfish |
" |
" |
Egypt, Nigeria |
Ictalurus punctatus |
Catfish |
" |
" |
Mexico |
Pimelodus blochii |
Catfish (Mandi) |
" |
" |
Brazil |
Prochilodus spp. |
Pacu, curimbata |
" |
Omnivorous |
Brazil, Venezuela |
Colossoma spp. |
Tambaqui, cachama |
" |
" |
Brazil, Venezuela |
Mugil spp. |
Mullets |
Brackish, warm water |
Omnivorous |
All 12 countries except Nepal |
Epinephalus tauvina |
Grouper |
" |
Carnivorous |
Malaysia, Thailand |
Dicentrarchus labrax |
Sea bass |
" |
" |
Egypt, Tunisia |
Sparus auratus |
Sea bream |
" |
" |
Egypt, Tunisia |
Lates calcerifer |
Sea bass |
" |
" |
Malaysia, Thailand |
Oxyeleotris marmoratus |
Sand goby |
" |
" |
Thailand |
Siganus spp. |
Rabbit fish |
" |
Herbivorous |
Malaysia |
Salmo giardneri |
Rainbow trout |
Fresh, cold water |
Carnivorous |
India, Mexico, Venezuela |
Table 5 Nutrient Specifications for Commercial Aquaculture Feeds
(Warm-water omnivorous species)
|
Fry and Fingerlings |
Juveniles and Growers |
Brood Fish |
Protein, % min. |
30 |
25 |
30 |
Lipids, % min. |
8 |
5 |
5 |
Ca, %, min. |
0.8 |
0.5 |
0.8 |
Ca, % max. |
1.5 |
1.8 |
1.5 |
P, avail, % min. |
0.6 |
0.5 |
0.6 |
P, avail, % max. |
1.0 |
1.0 |
1.0 |
Met + Cys, % min. |
1.2 |
0.9 |
1.0 |
Lysine, % min. |
2.0 |
1.6 |
1.8 |
DE Kcal/100 g, min. |
310 |
280 |
280 |
Vitamins (Supplement) (per 100 kg) | |||
A, i.u. |
600 000 |
500 000 |
600 000 |
D3 i.u. |
100 000 |
100 000 |
100 000 |
E, i.u. |
6 000 |
5 000 |
6 000 |
K, g |
1.2 |
1.0 |
1.0 |
C, g |
24.0 |
20.0 |
24.0 |
Thiamine, g |
2.4 |
2.0 |
2.4 |
Riboflavin, g |
2.4 |
2.0 |
2.4 |
Pantothenic acid, g |
6.0 |
5.0 |
6.0 |
Niacin, g |
12.0 |
10.0 |
12.0 |
Pyridoxine, g |
2.4 |
2.0 |
2.4 |
Biotin, g |
0.024 |
0.02 |
0.024 |
Folic acid, g |
0.6 |
0.5 |
0.6 |
Choline Cl, g |
54.0 |
50.0 |
54.0 |
B-12, mg |
2.4 |
2.0 |
2.4 |
Minerals (Supplement) (per 100 kg) | |||
Iron, g |
5.0 |
5.0 |
5.0 |
Copper, g |
0.3 |
0.3 |
0.3 |
Manganese, g |
2.0 |
2.0 |
2.0 |
Zinc, g |
3.0 |
3.0 |
3.0 |
Iodine, mg |
10.0 |
10.0 |
10.0 |
Cobalt, mg |
1.0 |
1.0 |
1.0 |
Selenium, mg |
10.0 |
10.0 |
10.0 |
Table 6 - Nutrient Specifications for Commercial Aquaculture Feeds
(Warm-water carnivorous species)
|
Fry and Fingerlings |
Juveniles and Growers |
Brood Fish |
Protein, % min. |
36 |
30 |
36 |
Lipids, % min. |
|
|
|
Ca, % min. |
1.0 |
1.0 |
1.0 |
Ca, % max. |
1.5 |
1.5 |
1.5 |
P, avail., % min. |
0.5 |
0.5 |
0.5 |
P, avail., % max. |
0.8 |
0.8 |
0.8 |
Met. + Cys., % min. |
1.2 |
0.9 |
1.0 |
Lysine, % min. |
2.0 |
1.6 |
1.8 |
DE, Kcal/100 g, min. |
360 |
300 |
330 |
Vitamin and mineral supplements (See Table 5) |
Table 7 - Nutrient Specifications for Commercial Aquaculture Feeds
(Rainbow Trout)
|
Fry and Fingerlings |
Juveniles and Growers |
Brood Fish |
Protein, % min. |
43.0 |
40 |
40 |
Lipids, % min. |
8.0 |
6.0 |
5.0 |
Ca, % min. |
0.8 |
0.5 |
0.8 |
Ca, % max. |
1.5 |
1.8 |
1.5 |
P, avail., % min. |
0.6 |
0.5 |
0.6 |
P, avail., % max. |
1.0 |
1.0 |
1.0 |
Met. + Cys., % min. |
1.7 |
1.6 |
1.4 |
Lysine, % min. |
2.9 |
2.7 |
2.4 |
DE, Kcal/100 g, min. |
330 |
300 |
280 |
Vitamin and mineral supplements (See Table 5) |
A micro encapsulated larval diet based on whole chicken egg has been described in an earlier report (ADCP/REP/80/11, pages 355-361). The table on the composition of chicken egg is reproduced below:
Table 8
Composition of (Chicken) Egg
|
Whole egg |
Egg white |
Egg yolk |
Protein, % |
48.8 |
76.9 |
32.8 |
Fat, % |
43.2 |
- |
62.2 |
Gross energy, kcal/kg |
5 830 |
3 070 |
6 910 |
Metabolizable energy (ME), kcal/kg |
4 810 |
2 533 |
5 700 |
ME: protein ratio |
9.8 |
3.3 |
17.3 |
Calcium, % |
0.2063 |
0.0427 |
0.2653 |
Phosphorus, % |
0.873 |
0.282 |
1.020 |
Amino Acids, % |
|
|
|
Arginine |
2.968 |
4.179 |
3.369 |
Cystine |
0.837 |
1.282 |
0.526 |
Isoleucine |
2.734 |
4.307 |
1.896 |
Leucine |
4.063 |
6.273 |
2.790 |
Lysine |
3.047 |
4.427 |
2.369 |
Methionine |
1.563 |
2.700 |
1.663 |
Phenylalanine |
2.500 |
4.427 |
1.316 |
Threonine |
2.500 |
3.692 |
1.843 |
Tryptophan |
0.837 |
1.350 |
0.577 |
Tyrosine |
1.952 |
3.076 |
1.316 |
Valine |
3.674 |
6.025 |
2.263 |
The encapsulated diet itself consists of whole egg supplemented with vitamins and a mineral source for calcium 1/. The diet was tested with good results on fry of rohu (Labeo rohita) and clarias (Clarias batrachus) at RLCT Bangkhen 2/. Two methods were used in its preparation. The first was as previously described, i.e. by rapidly adding boiling water with constant stirring to the homogenate. The product was a very fine suspension of micro-capsules which was then separated by medium speed (5 000 rpm for 15 minutes) centrifugation. A modified heat processing method was also tried. In this method, the homogenate was steam cooked for about 10 minutes and the custard-like product passed through a fine mesh nylon cloth to produce the micro-capsules. Since water (cold) was also required in this operation, the capsules were finally separated by centrifuging (at 3 000 rpm for 10 minutes). Product yield by the modified method was considerably higher and less fuel was probably required for processing. The modified method was also used to prepare a freeze-dried version of the larval feed at RLCI, Dhauli 3/. Details of the freeze dried product are provided in the next section of this report.
1/ The rate of addition of various vitamins was according to the recommended levels in diets for fingerlings as described in Table. The amount of calcium carbonate or limestone added to one egg weighing 50 g (10 g dry matter) was 0.2 g.2/ RLCT, FAO Regional Lead Centre for Aquaculture in Thailand
3/ RLCI, FAO Regional Lead Centre for Aquaculture in India
The tests conducted at RLCT involved four species: the rohu, Clarias, sand goby and Pangasius.
Rohu (Labeo rohita)
Two preparations of encapsulated egg diet were tested against boiled egg yolk. The experiment was carried in replicate in glass aquaria each containing 250 fry that were less than 48 hours old. Diet rations were measured out daily and resuspended in water before feeding. The rest of the diet preparations were kept under refrigeration. Daily feed on a dry basis amounted to 20 percent estimated body weight of the fish and were given four times daily. The aquaria were cleaned daily with about 75 percent water replacement.
The larvae were kept on the diets for ten days, during which growth and survival were closely monitored. Fish on both encapsulated egg preparations grew normally and remained active during the period. There was less than 5 percent mortality among larvae fed the encapsulated diets. Fish that were fed the diet prepared by steaming appeared whitish in the abdominal region. However, there was no difference in survival rate between the two encapsulated diets.
Larvae fed boiled egg yolk suffered mortality from the fourth day of the test, and by the tenth day there were few survivors.
Clarias (Clarias batrachus)
The encapsulated egg diet was tested against live Moina and two artificial feeds: dried earthworms from Japan and a larval diet of New Zealand origin. Fish on Moina performed best in terms of growth and survival, followed by the encapsulated diet. Performance of fish on the two other diets was very poor.
Sand goby (Oxyelotris marmoratus)
Larvae of sand goby were fed the encapsulated diet for two weeks. Although there was no observed mortality up to the seventh day, large losses occurred beyond that time period. It was not known whether the losses were due to mortality or because of the increasing presence of water mites from the fourth day of the test.
Pangasius (Pangasius sutchi)
The test of the encapsulated diet on Pangasius larvae was unsuccessful. The aquaria were too densely stocked at the beginning, resulting in uncontrolled cannibalism among the young fish.
These preliminary studies indicate that encapsulated whole egg is a good substitute for live natural food for rohu and clarias larvae.
Earlier attempts were also made to test the encapsulated diet on the cachama (Colossoma spp.) at the Guanapito warm water fish station in Venezuela. However, due to improper procedures carried out in preparing the diet, the results were not conclusive. Attempts will be made at the Inter-regional Aquaculture Centre (IRAC) in Szarvas, Hungary to carry out properly controlled experiments with this new form of larval diet to establish its efficacy and commercial potential.
4.2.1 Carps and Tilapia
4.2.2 Pacu (Prochilodus spp.) and Tambaqui (Colossoma spp.)
The practice of carp polyculture in earthern ponds has gained prominence in India in recent years. In this culture system, Indian major carps, the catla (Catla catla), rohu (Labeo rohita) and mrigal (Cirrhinus mrigala) are stocked with the common carp (Cyprinus carpio), the grass carp (Ctenopharyngodon idella) and silver carp (Hypothalmichthys molitrix) in varying ratios, with a predominance of Indian major carps. The main food supply is the ponds' natural production of algae, plankton, detritus and benthic organisms. However, in order to support higher stocking densities, supplementary feeds are usually given. These feeds consist of a mixture of rice bran and oilcakes (usually groundnut oilcake or mustard oilcake). Sometimes aquatic as well as terrestrial weeds are also provided to augment the food supply. The rice bran/oilcake mixture is in a rough ratio of 1:1 by weight and is given daily at a rate of 1 to 4 percent body weight of fish. Although increased fish production has been attributed directly to supplementary feeding, an evaluation of its efficacy has not been possible given the many variations of stocking ratios and generally arbitrary way in which supplementary feeding rates are determined. Moreover the rice bran/oilcake mixture lacks minerals and vitamins and rapidly separates into its component ingredients during the feeding process. Considerable wastage is, therefore, expected and the effectiveness of such an artificial diet would also depend greatly on the natural productivity of the pond, especially for the supply of animal protein in the form of zooplankton and benthic organisms.
To determine if an improvement could be obtained by supplementing the diet mixture with minerals and vitamins, a test was conducted at RLCI, Dhauli 1/. Two diets based on rice bran and groundnut oilcake to contain 28 percent crude protein were formulated. One of the diets also contained the vitamin and mineral supplement 2/. Those diets were fed to rohu fingerlings averaging 3 g at the start of the experiment. Growth of fish fed mineral and vitamin fortified diet was found to be superior to that of control.
1/ For full details of this test see "Carp nutrition research at the Freshwater Aqua-culture Research and Training Centre, Dhauli" FI:DP/IND/75/031, Field Document 4, May 19822/ Control diet: rice bran, 40%; groundnut oilcake, 60%; test diet: rice bran, 32.5%; groundnut oilcake: 65,5%; dicalcium phosphate: 2%, and one normal strength multi-vitamin tablet (for human use) per 1 kg diet mixture
Other diets that were formulated for testing with carps at RLCI appear in Tables 9, 10 and 11. The test diets for each age class differ with respect to protein and/or energy sources. Vegetable protein supplements such as groundnut oilcake, sesame oilcake and soyabean meal are, for practical purposes, interchangeable where a choice does not exist. The same applies for energy feeds such as rice bran and wheat bran, or among cereal grains. The test diets were designed to determine which would be the preferred formulations, should choice of ingredients exist.
The experimental diets described were prepared in the following manner; the rice bran or wheat bran was cooked in water constituting 120 percent 1/ of total weight of the diet mixture. The remaining components, after first being properly mixed, were then blended into the hot pasty slurry to form a dough. This was then extruded into pellets by means of a meat mincer fitted with a 3 mm die. The extruded pellets contained about 55 percent moisture and, unless dried in the sun, was used as moist type feed. For storage of the prepared feed, the pellets were spread out over a fine screen and dried in the sun. The dried pellets, which contained about 11 percent moisture, were found to have good water stability and shelf life of more than two months when kept in closed containers.
1/ The amount of water used was determined by the absorptive characteristic of the bran. Higher quality rice bran, which contains more starch and less fibre, requires greater addition of water, as in this case
Following the installation of the laboratory model pellet mill at RLCI the dry diet mixtures were pressed out using a 2 mm die. The pelleting operation was carried out first with steam conditioning and then with 6 to 8 percent water blended into the dry mash before pelleting. Better results were obtained using the latter method 2/. For dry type sinking pellets, water stability of the products was good (about 90 minutes). Also the percentage of "fines" was very small (less than 1 percent).
2/ See section on Manufactured Foods for Aquaculture
In Egypt the most readily available protein feed is cottonseed meal. All others have to be imported, including fish meal and soyabean meal. Two diets were prepared for testing on common carp and tilapia in cages set in a 4 ha pond at El Zaweya. The two formulations tested are shown in Table 12 and details of the experiment are described in the relevant consultancy report prepared for the Project EGY/80/002 (See reference list). Growth measurements made at the end of the first two weeks indicated marginal weight gains in both dietary treatments. The slow growth was most probably due to low water temperatures during the test period (14°C in the early morning and a maximum of 24°C shortly after noon). Although meant to continue for three months, the experiment had to be terminated because of fish escape from all the cages during adjustment of water level in the pond, ten days after the experiment began. Fish that were recovered appeared well fed, and gain in average weight was registered for both carp and tilapia.
Formulation of diets for tilapia in Port Harcourt, Nigeria, was hampered by acute shortages of conventional feed ingredients, although abattoir waste (mainly fresh cattle blood) was available free in considerable quantities, and fish meal in limited quantities from the NIOMR fish meal pilot plant in Lagos. Table 13 shows the three diets that were formulated for testing at the African Regional Aquaculture Centre (ARAC) at Aluu. A problem associated with the use of fresh animal blood in diet making in the tropics is the rapid proliferation of mold in the product, especially if drying of the pellets is not completed rapidly. On one occasion it was observed that fungal spores (detected with a magnifying glass) had already contaminated the feed within a week after its preparation.
Table 9
Test Diets for Rohu Fingerlings at RLCI, Dhauli, India
Ingredients |
Diet No. 1/ | ||||
(%) |
1 |
2 |
3 |
4 |
5 |
Groundnut oilcake |
60 |
- |
58 |
33 |
- |
Sesame oilcake |
- |
78 |
- |
33 |
77 |
Wheat bran |
38 |
20 |
- |
- |
- |
Rice bran |
- |
- |
40 |
32 |
21 |
Dicalcium phosphate |
1.5 |
1.5 |
1.5 |
1.5 |
1.5 |
Table salt |
0.3 |
0.3 |
0.3 |
0.3 |
0.3 |
Trace minerals 2/ |
0.1 |
0.1 |
0.1 |
0.1 |
0.1 |
Vitamin mixture 3/ |
0.1 |
0.1 |
0.1 |
0.1 |
0.1 |
Calculated chemical composition: | |||||
Crude protein, % |
29.3 |
27.9 |
29.2 |
28.6 |
27.9 |
Digestible energy, kcal/g |
2.93 |
3.0 |
2.72 |
2.80 |
2.90 |
Lysine, % |
0.88 |
0.61 |
1.05 |
0.91 |
0.71 |
Methionine +cystine, % |
0.77 |
1.18 |
0.77 |
0.95 |
1.18 |
Cost/kg (excluding cost of mineral and vitamin supplements) 4/ | |||||
I. Rs. |
1.61 |
1.68 |
1.28 |
1.38 |
1.36 |
1/ Diets were made into dry pellets as described in the text2/ Trace mineral mix made from CuSO4 . 5H2O, FeSO4 . 7H20, MnSO4 . H2O, ZnO, CoCl2 . 6H20, Kl and CaHPO (filler) to provide the following (ppm total diet): Cu, 10; Fe, 100; Mn, 50; Zn, 50; Co, 0.05; and I, 0.1.
3/ Vitamin mixture to provide the following (per kg total diet): Vitamin A, 5 000 IU; vitamin D, 600 IU; thiamin, 10 mg; riboflavin, 20 mg; pantothenic acid, 30 mg; niacin, 50 mg; and ascorbic acid, 200 mg. Due to the unavailability of individual vitamins at the time of diet preparation. Miles Brand multivitamin tablets were used at the level of 1 tablet/kg diet.
4/ For costs of individual ingredients, see Table 3.
Table 10
Recommended Test Diets for Carp Fry (India)
Ingredients |
Diet No. 1/ | ||||
% |
1 |
2 |
3 |
4 |
5 |
Groundnut oilcake |
61 |
45 |
28 |
20 |
61 |
Sesame oilcake |
- |
- |
- |
35 |
- |
Fish meal |
- |
10 |
20 |
10 |
- |
Rice bran |
37 |
44 |
51.8 |
34 |
36.7 |
Dicalcium phosphate |
1.5 |
0.5 |
- |
0.5 |
1.5 |
Table salt |
0.3 |
0.3 |
- |
0.3 |
0.3 |
Trace minerals 2/ |
0.1 |
0.1 |
0.1 |
0.1 |
0.1 |
Vitamin mixture 3/ |
0.1 |
0.1 |
0.1 |
0.1 |
0.1 |
1-Lysine 4/ |
- |
- |
- |
- |
0.3 |
Calculated chemical composition | |||||
Crude protein, % |
30.0 |
30.2 |
30.1 |
30.0 |
30.3 |
Digestible energy, kcal/g |
2.77 |
2.74 |
2.71 |
2.82 |
2.77 |
Lysine, % |
1.07 |
1.37 |
1.67 |
1.23 |
1.37 |
Methionine +cystine, % |
0.79 |
0.81 |
0.96 |
1.07 |
0.79 |
Cost/kg diet (excluding cost of mineral and vitamin supplements) 5/ | |||||
I. Rs. |
1.32 |
1.57 |
1.76 |
1.58 |
1.47 |
1/ Test diets to be made into dry pellets as described in text. Pellets should be ground to particle size not larger than 0.5 mm2/ As in Table 9
3/ As in Table 9
4/ Estimated cost: I. Rs. 50/kg
5/ For cost of individual ingredients, see Table 3
Table 11
Recommended Test Diets for Carp Brood Stock (India)
Ingredients |
Diet No. 1/ | |||
% |
1 |
2 |
3 |
4 |
Groundnut oilcake |
61 |
40 |
51.8 |
- |
Sesame oilcake |
- |
- |
- |
60 |
Prawn head meal 2/ |
- |
30 |
15 |
30 |
Rice bran |
37 |
29.8 |
33 |
11.8 |
Dicalcium phosphate |
1.5 |
- |
- |
- |
Table salt |
0.3 |
- |
- |
- |
Trace minerals 3/ |
0.1 |
0.1 |
0.1 |
0.1 |
Vitamin mixture 4/ |
0.1 |
0.1 |
0.1 |
0.1 |
Calculated chemical composition | ||||
Crude protein, % |
30.0 |
30.0 |
30.2 |
30.4 |
Digestible energy, kcal/g |
2.77 |
2.63 |
2.73 |
2.87 |
Cost/kg diet (excluding cost of mineral and vitamin supplements) 5/ | ||||
I. Rs. |
1.32 |
1.50 |
1.43 |
1.75 |
1/ Test diets to be made into dry pellets as described in text
2/ No data available on lysine and sulphur amino acid content
3/ As in Table 9
4/ As in Table 9
5/ For cost of individual ingredients, see Table 3
It is suggested that such feeds be prepared fresh for feeding, to avoid any health problem to fish, unless preservatives such as propionate or benzoate are available for addition to the diet mixture to prevent mold contamination.
Table 12
Composition of Test Diets for Tilapia and Carp Fingerlings for the El Zaweya Government Fish Farm (Egypt)
Ingredients, % |
Diet 1/ |
|
A |
B |
|
Cottonseed meal |
53 |
- |
Soyabean meal |
- |
50 |
Rice bran |
43 |
46.2 |
Bone meal |
3 |
3.5 |
Table salt |
0.2 |
0.2 |
d1-Methionine |
0.3 |
- |
1-Lysine |
0.4 |
- |
Vitamin mixture 2/ |
0.1 |
0.1 |
Total |
100.0 |
100.0 |
Calculated chemical composition |
|
|
Protein, % |
30 |
30 |
Lysine |
1.6 |
1.6 |
Methionine + cystine |
0.8 |
0.8 |
Digestible energy, kcal/g |
2.25 |
2.25 |
Cost, piastres/kg 3/ |
7.7 |
15.9 |
1/ Preparation of diets: rice bran and bone meal were mixed and boiled with water constituting 100 percent total weight of the diet. The purpose of boiling was to bring out the natural binding properties of starch to produce water-stable pellets. The slurry was then allowed to cool slightly before the remaining ingredients, previously mixed, were blended in. The resulting dough was then passed through a kitchen meat grinder fitted with a 2 mm die. The moist pellets produced were dried in the sun over a fine mesh screen. Pellets were crumbled to smaller particle size before feeding.2/ The vitamin mixture used was a commercial product for poultry and, as applied, provided the following (per kg diet): vitamin A, 5 000 IU; vitamin D2, 600 IU; thiamine, 10 mg; riboflavin, 20 mg; pantothenic acid, 30 mg; niacin, 50 mg; pyridoxine, 2 mg; and ascorbic acid, 200 mg.
3/ For cost of individual ingredients, see Table 3
Table 13
Test Diets for Tilapia Fingerlings at the African Regional Aquaculture Centre, Aluu (Nigeria)
Ingredients |
Diet 1/ | |||
Fresh bovine blood |
57 |
28 |
- | |
Wheat bran |
43 |
44 |
66 | |
Groundnut oil cake |
- |
28 |
- | |
Fish meal |
- |
- |
34 | |
Vitamin mix 2/ |
30 |
70 |
90 | |
Vitamin C supplement 3/ |
10 |
20 |
20 | |
Total |
100.06 |
100.09 |
100.11 | |
Approximate analysis (%) |
|
|
| |
|
Dry matter |
50 |
70 |
90 |
|
Protein (dry basis) |
30 |
30 |
30 |
1/ Amounts in kg except for the vitamin supplements, which are in g. Preparation of diets: Diet 1, Fresh blood or thawed out frozen blood was weighed out in a large container; the pulverized vitamin mixtures were stirred into the blood, followed by addition of the wheat bran; after thorough mixing, the dough was extruded with a meat grinder; the pellets were then spread out over a wire mesh tray for drying in the sun. Diet 2. The wheat bran was cooked in 40 litres of water and blended with the fresh blood into which vitamins had previously been added; the groundnut oilcake was then blended into this mixture followed by extrusion into pellets. Diet 3. The rice bran was cooked in 100 litres of water and then blended with the mixture containing the fish meal and vitamin mixtures; the dough obtained was then extruded as described earlier.2/ The vitamin mixture (Coryl SP) was a commercial preparation meant for supplementing poultry diets at the rate of 1 g per 1 kg feed. It does not contain vitamin C.
3/ "Redoxin" lozenges that contain 50 percent ascorbic acid.
Table 14
Composition of Mexican Feedstuffs 1/
|
% Dry Matter | |||||||
Feedstuff |
% Dry matter |
Crude protein |
Crude fat |
Crude fibre |
Ash |
NFE 2/ |
Max. $/kg 3/ | |
Maize, ground |
88.8 |
10.0 |
4.5 |
2.8 |
2.4 |
80.3 |
6.5 | |
Maize gluten |
87.6 |
46.6 |
6.7 |
6.1 |
7.4 |
33.2 |
6.5 | |
Maize germ meal |
92.6 |
21.6 |
5.7 |
8.8 |
5.9 |
57.9 |
5.0 | |
Sorghum |
85.4 |
11.1 |
3.7 |
6.1 |
4.1 |
74.8 |
4.0 | |
Wheat |
91.5 |
16.2 |
3.4 |
3.1 |
2.8 |
74.6 |
5.5 | |
Wheat bran |
88.3 |
17.6 |
4.1 |
10.4 |
6.4 |
61.5 |
4.5 | |
Wheat middlings |
91.6 |
15.1 |
5.6 |
10.7 |
5.0 |
63.5 |
5.0 | |
Rice bran, solvent extracted |
94.3 |
12.9 |
1.3 |
21.8 |
22.1 |
41.9 |
4.5 | |
Soyabean, whole |
87.9 |
40.5 |
25.3 |
6.2 |
5.8 |
22.2 |
9.0 4/ | |
Soyabean meal |
88.5 |
54.2 |
1.2 |
5.3 |
7.9 |
31.4 |
8.5 | |
Cottonseed meal |
91.6 |
45.4 |
1.3 |
14.5 |
11.4 |
27.4 |
7.2 | |
Safflowerseed meal, 22% |
92.2 |
24.0 |
0.7 |
3.9 |
5.1 |
66.4 |
4.0 | |
Safflowerseed meal, 36% |
91.5 |
35.1 |
2.6 |
19.2 |
9.5 |
33.6 |
5.6 | |
Sunflowerseed meal |
91.8 |
29.8 |
4.4 |
21.5 |
7.9 |
36.4 |
4.5 | |
Sesame oil meal |
90.1 |
51.0 |
1.3 |
6.8 |
12.9 |
28.0 |
8.0 | |
Copra meal |
94.0 |
24.6 |
7.2 |
28.4 |
7.4 |
32.5 |
6.0 | |
Alfalfa meal |
90.1 |
18.9 |
2.8 |
24.6 |
11.4 |
42.4 |
4.5 | |
Fish meal |
93.1 |
70.4 |
10.7 |
0.9 |
14.9 |
3.8 |
13.0 | |
Whey powder |
90.1 |
15.3 |
2.1 |
0.2 |
9.9 |
72.5 |
20.0 | |
Yeast powder |
92.6 |
48.0 |
1.4 |
2.9 |
7.2 |
40.5 |
10.0 | |
Brewers' grains |
93.1 |
29.8 |
9.5 |
12.1 |
2.6 |
46.0 |
5.2 | |
Vegetable oil |
99.0 |
- |
100 |
- |
- |
- |
25.0 | |
Molasses |
85.0 |
5.4 |
0.3 |
9.9 |
10.3 |
74.0 |
1.5 | |
Rock phosphate |
Containing: phosphorus, 7%; calcium, 18% |
3.0 | ||||||
Dicalcium phosphate |
Containing: phosphorus, 18%; calcium, 24% |
15.0 | ||||||
Limestone powder |
Containing mainly CaCO3 |
2.0 4/ | ||||||
Salt |
|
2.0 | ||||||
d1-Methionine |
Containing: 98% d1-methionine |
100.0 | ||||||
1-Lysine |
Containing: 98% 1-lysine |
84.0 | ||||||
Vitamin premix 5/ |
|
50.0 | ||||||
Mineral premix 6/ |
|
10.0 | ||||||
Mesquite: |
|
| ||||||
|
leaves with pods and seeds |
- |
9.9 |
1.5 |
23.3 |
3.1 |
62.2 |
NP 7/ |
|
pods with seeds |
- |
13.8 |
3.2 |
27.8 |
4.9 |
50.4 |
NP 7/ |
|
seeds |
5.6 |
10.7 |
1.4 |
14.7 |
4.1 |
64.5 |
NP 7/ |
1/ Source: Latin American Tables of Feed Composition, 1974, Florida and ALBAMEX. Prices provided by ALBAMEX2/ Nitrogen free extract
3/ Mex.$ 25 = US$ 1 (approximately)
4/ No prices provided by ALBAMEX. Prices indicated based on relative fair value of ingredients.
5/ Each gramme of premix to contain the following: Vitamin A, 1 000 IU; Vitamin D3, 200 IU; Vitamin E, 10 IU; (in mg) Vitamin K, 2, Thiamine, 4; Riboflavin, 4; Pantothenic acid, 10; Niacin, 20; Pyridoxine, 4; Biotin, 0.02; Folic acid, 1; Ascorbic acid, 40; Choline chloride, 90; Vitamin B12, 0.004; Ethoxyquin (antioxidant), 16.
6/ Each gramme of premix to contain the following (mg mineral element): Iron, 50; Copper, 3; Cobalt, 0.01; Manganese, 20; Zinc, 30; Iodine, 0.1; and Selenium, 0.1. The inclusion of selenium is necessary in view of its established role as an essential trace element in animal nutrition and its low levels in plant protein sources which are expected to replace selenium-rich fish meal in the least-cost diets.
Table 15
Least Cost Formulations for Warm Water Species 1/
(Mexico)
|
Fry and Fingerlings |
Grower |
Brood Fish | |
A. CONSTRAINTS 2/ |
|
|
| |
|
RHS |
|
|
|
|
Protein, % |
30.0 |
25.0 |
30.0 |
|
Lysine, % |
2.0 |
1.6 |
1.8 |
|
Methionine + Cystine, % |
1.2 |
0.9 |
1.0 |
|
Lipid, % |
8.0 |
- |
- |
|
ME, Kcal/g* |
3.1 |
2.8 |
2.8 |
|
Calcium, 7. |
0.8 |
0.5 |
0.8 |
|
Phosphorus, total, % |
0.8 |
0.8 |
0.8 |
|
Ranges |
|
|
|
|
Calcium, % |
0.7 |
1.0 |
0.7 |
|
Phosphorus, % |
0.5 |
0.5 |
0.5 |
|
Bounds (%) |
|
|
|
|
Alfalfa meal (UP) |
0.0 |
10.0 |
10.0 |
|
Fish meal (LO) |
5.0 |
- |
- |
|
Molasses (UP) |
0.0 |
5.0 |
5.0 |
|
Sorghum (UP) |
5.0 |
15.0 |
15.0 |
|
Cottonseed meal (UP) |
5.0 |
15.0 |
0.0 |
|
Maize gluten (FX) |
10.0 |
10.0 |
10.0 |
|
Vitamin premix (FX) |
0.6 |
0.5 |
0.6 |
|
Mineral premix (FX) |
0.1 |
0.1 |
0.1 |
B. SOLUTIONS |
|
|
| |
|
Diet | |||
|
I |
II |
III | |
|
Ingredients, kg/tonne diet 3/ |
|
|
|
|
Extruded whole soyabeans |
530.0 |
540.0 |
438.0 |
|
Soyabean meal |
- |
- |
31.5 |
|
Sunflower seed meal |
- |
110.7 |
98.0 |
|
Fish meal |
140.0 |
- |
- |
|
Maize gluten |
100.0 |
- 4/ |
100.0 |
|
Maize germ meal |
- |
73.4 |
- |
|
Sorghum |
50.0 |
150.0 |
150.0 |
|
Wheat |
150.0 |
- |
- |
|
Wheat bran |
- |
30.0 |
- |
|
Safflowerseed meal |
- |
- |
100.0 |
|
Molasses |
- |
50.0 |
50.0 |
|
Calcium orthophosphate |
1.5 |
13.5 |
16.0 |
|
Limestone powder |
17.0 |
25.4 |
6.6 |
|
1-Lysine |
- |
- |
2.9 |
|
Vitamin premix |
6.0 |
6.0 5/ |
6.0 |
|
Mineral premix |
1.0 |
1.0 |
1.0 |
|
Analysis |
|
|
|
|
Metabolizable energy, Kcal/g |
3.1 |
2.8 |
2.8 |
|
Crude protein, % |
35.5 |
26.9 |
30.0 |
|
Lysine, % |
2.22 |
1.6 |
1.8 |
|
Methionine + Cystine, % |
1.20 |
0.9 |
1.05 |
|
Total phosphorus, % |
0.8 |
0.8 |
0.8 |
|
Calcium, % |
1.5 |
1.5 |
0.8 |
|
Fibre, % |
5.0 |
8.0 |
8.5 |
|
Lipid, % |
12.0 |
10.0 |
8.5 |
|
Raw Material Cost, Mex.$ per kg diet 6/ |
8.63 |
7.11 |
7.28 |
* All metabolizable energy values are for poultry since a list of ME values of individual ingredients for fish is not complete. In setting-up energy requirements for the species, this has been taken into consideration.1/ Formulations carried out with IBM 370 computer at ALBAMEX, using MPSX software package.
2/ Constraints provided by FAO Fish Feed Technologist.
3/ See Table 14, Table of Composition of Mexican Feedstuffs.
4/ Error in set up of constraint for this ingredient. A fix bound at the 10 percent level was omitted in the data card deck.
5/ Error in card punch for fix bound at the 0.5 percent level
6/ Computed from raw material prices shown in Table 3.
Carp and tilapia farming under intensive culture systems is also being encouraged in Mexico and Venezuela. In Mexico, where the livestock feed industry is large and well-developed, many of the common conventional feedstuffs are available (Table 14). Since the Mexican Government also owns the country's largest feed milling enterprise, aquaculture will have the same access to these raw materials as the already well-established livestock industry. To benefit fully from this resource, however, formulation of aquaculture diets are being carried out using linear programming techniques on an electronic computer. Details of these methods are contained in an earlier report (ADCP/REP/80/11).
Least cost diets were formulated at one of the government mills for common carp and hybrid tilapia 1/. The constraints for the computerized formulations are shown in Table 15, and the results appear at the bottom of the table. The diets were to be processed into dry type sinking pellets.
The pacu and tambaqui have been observed to feed on fruits. Because these fish grow rapidly, their culture has been of great interest, especially in Brazil and Venezuela. In both countries there is a potentially large feed resource based on the fruit and vegetable processing industry. Tables 16 and 17 describe diets formulated for testing with these species of fish in Brazil and Venezuela respectively, incorporating some of the non-conventional feed ingredients indigenous to the two countries.
Table 16
Test Diets for Pacu and Tambaqui at the Latin American Regional Aquaculture Centre (CERLA), Pirassununga, Brazil
Ingredients |
Diets for fingerlings 1/ |
Diets for young adults 2/ |
||||||||
1 |
2 |
3 |
4 |
5 |
1 |
2 |
3 |
4 |
5 |
|
Soyabean meal |
37 |
35 |
30 |
30 |
35 |
36.5 |
36.5 |
29.5 |
41.5 |
45 |
Fish meal (anchovy) |
15 |
15 |
15 |
20 |
20 |
- |
- |
- |
- |
- |
Wheat bran |
47 |
29 |
24 |
39 |
24 |
59 |
24 |
15 |
40 |
26 |
Orange pulp meal 3/ |
- |
10 |
10 |
10 |
20 |
- |
20 |
20 |
15 |
25 |
Orange seed meal 4/ |
- |
10 |
10 |
- |
- |
- |
15 |
30 |
- |
- |
Bone meal |
- |
- |
- |
- |
- |
3.5 |
3.5 |
3.5 |
3.5 |
3 |
Vitamin/mineral mix |
1 |
1 |
1 |
1 |
1 |
1 |
1 |
1 |
1 |
1 |
Total |
100 |
100 |
100 |
100 |
100 |
100 |
100 |
100 |
100 |
100 |
1/ Approximate protein content of fingerling diets: 33 percent2/ Approximate protein content of adult fish diets: 25 percent
3/ Proximate analysis (%): dry matter, 87.6; crude protein, 6.9; crude fat, 4.6; crude fibre, 10.3; NFE, 59.8; and ash 6.0
4/ Proximate analysis (%): dry matter, 90.0; crude protein, 30.0; crude fat, 0.9; crude fibre, 19.8; NFE, 33.6; and ash 5.7
Table 17
Test Diets for Curimbata (Prochilodus spp.) and Cachama (Colossoma spp.) at the Guanapito Freshwater Fish Culture Station (Venezuela) 1/
Ingredients |
Diets for fingerlings 2/ |
Diets for young adults 3/ |
||||||
1 |
2 |
3 |
4 |
5 |
6 |
7 |
8 |
|
Fish meal |
20 |
20 |
- |
- |
- |
- |
- |
- |
Meat meal |
15 |
14 |
26 |
25 |
17 |
16 |
16 |
15 |
Blood meal |
- |
- |
10 |
10 |
5 |
5 |
5 |
5 |
Wheat bran |
59 |
55 |
58 |
54 |
52 |
53 |
53 |
54 |
Tomato seed meal 4/ |
- |
- |
- |
- |
5 |
10 |
15 |
20 |
Soman seed meal 5/ |
5 |
10 |
5 |
10 |
20 |
15 |
10 |
5 |
Vitamin/mineral mix |
1 |
1 |
1 |
1 |
1 |
1 |
1 |
1 |
Total |
100 |
100 |
100 |
100 |
100 |
100 |
100 |
100 |
1/ These diets are the author's improved versions of formulations carried out by national counterpart staff contained in a consultancy report prepared for the Project VEN/79/0022/ Approximate protein content of fingerling diets: 30 percent
3/ Approximate protein content of diets for adult fish: 25 percent
4/ Proximate analysis (%): dry matter, 91.1; crude protein, 25.0; crude fat, 19.6; crude fibre, 17.0; NFE, 22.9; ash, 6.6
5/ Proximate analysis (%): dry matter, 85.0; crude protein, 18.0; crude fat, 1.4; crude fibre, 10.9; NFE, 65.1; ash, 4.6
4.3.1 Catfishes (Clarias spp., Ictalurus punctatus)
4.3.2 Grouper (Epinephelus tauvina), sea bass (Lates calcarifer, Dicentrarchus labrax), sea bream (Sparus auratus)
4.3.3 Other diet formulations for warm water species
Because of their voracious feeding habits and capacity for rapid growth, these fishes have been popular among aquaculturists in the tropics. Although most species are considered to be carnivorous, those that presently come under artificial culture readily accept feed in which ingredients of animal origin constitute only a small percentage of the total constituents.
The nutrient requirements for fresh water carnivores are not believed to differ much from those of omnivores. In the United States, recommended dietary protein levels for channel catfish range from 28 to 35 percent. In Thailand, Clarias are successfully grown on traditional diets consisting of trash fish, rice bran and broken rice mixed in ratios varying from 3:1:1 to 10:2:1 (S. Wattanutchariya and T. Panayotan, 1982). This comes to protein levels of 25 to 38 percent on dry diet basis. Most commercially produced dry feeds for Clarias in Thailand contain 30 percent protein. Table 18 shows diets for Clarias and channel catfish formulated with the aid of an electronic computer. Table 19 shows simple diets of varying protein content that are also suitable for catfish production in Thailand.
Protein requirements of warm water marine carnivores are generally higher than those of fresh water species. The farming of marine species often takes advantage of limited availability of trash fish from marine fishing operations. The utilization of trash fish in balanced diets is best accomplished by combining the trash fish with a dry mixture of other ingredients which, when combined in predetermined proportions, will yield diets of the desired protein content.
Tables 20 and 21 are formulations for Oregon-type moist pellets for sea bass (Lates spp.) and grouper culture in Malaysia 1/. Where the variety of conventional feed ingredients is more limiting, as in Tunisia, the trash fish may be blended directly into the other ingredients and the dough extruded through a meat mincer, as in two test diets prepared for evaluation on fingerlings of mediterranean sea bass (Dicentrarchus spp.) and sea bream (Sparus auratus) in that country (Table 21). Both diets were well accepted by the fish. Young adult mullets, also readily consumed the feeds when offered 2/. Table 22 lists five such diets that will be tested on sea bass in raceways at the Government fish culture station in Salammbo.
1/ See reference list concerning consultancy report to the Project MAL/77/0082/ See reference list concerning consultancy report to the Project TCP/TUN/0104
Tables 24 and 25 contain other formulations which are suitable for use in intensive culture of warm water fishes (except marine carnivores). Fish meal, which is expensive and often unavailable to the fish farmer, is not included in most of the formulations, although many include other indigenous animal protein sources such as blood meal, prawn head meal and squid meal. Most importantly, all the diets are expected to meet the mineral and vitamin requirements. These nutrients are of great importance in balanced diets and are often overlooked.
Table 18 - Computer-formulated Least Cost Diets for Catfishes
Table 19 - Diets for Catfish Culture in Thailand 1/
1/ These diets may either be dry pelleted or processed into moist feed, as described earlier. For diets that include full fat soyabean, it is essential that the latter at least is heat processed to destroy growth inhibitors, such as anti-trypsin factors and urease
Table 20
Oregon-type Moist Pellets for Sea Bass (Lates) and Grouper Culture in Malaysia
A. Dry mixture composition 1/ |
|
|
Ingredients |
Fry/Fingerling Mixture |
Grower Mixture |
Groundmeal |
15.0 |
20.0 |
Soyabean meal |
15.0 |
20.0 |
Rice bran |
33.6 |
43.6 |
Yeast, feed grade |
6.0 |
6.0 |
Fish meal, 55% protein |
30.0 |
10.0 |
Vitamin premix 2/ |
0.4 |
0.4 |
Total |
100.0 |
100.0 |
B. Complete moist diet composition 3/ |
|
|
Ingredients |
Fry/Fingerling Diet |
Grower Diet |
Dry mixture I |
50 |
- |
Dry mixture II |
- |
50 |
Trash fish |
35 |
35 |
Fresh livestock blood |
15 |
15 |
Total |
100 |
100 |
Approximate protein content, % dry basis |
45 |
40 |
Approximate moisture content, % |
35 |
35 |
1/ The dry components of each of the two mixtures should first be finely ground and then thoroughly mixed.2/ Content mg per gm premix: Thiamine-HCl, 2.0; riboflavin, 3.0; calcium pantothenate, 6.0; niacinamide, 12.0; pyridoxine-HCl, 2.0; folic acid, 0.5; choline chloride, 60.0; biotin, 0.2; vitamin B12, 0.1; ascorbic acid, 50; vitamin A, 500 IU; vitamin D3, 25 IU; vitamin E, 20 IU; and vitamin K, 0.5 mg.
3/ All components of each diet may be blended and passed through a meat grinder. A second or third pass through the grinder will produce a more homogeneously mixed and better quality pellet. Because Oregon-type pellets do not undergo heat processing, shelf-life of these two diets is poor and will have to be stored under refrigeration if held overnight before feeding.
Table 21
Processed Moist Diets for Sea Bass (Lates) and Grouper in Malaysia 1/
Ingredients |
Fry/Fingerling Diet |
Grower Diet |
Crude palm oil |
5.0 |
5.0 |
Fish meal, 55 % protein |
44.0 |
30.0 |
Soyabean meal |
9.0 |
13.0 |
Yeast, feed grade |
1.0 |
1.0 |
Vitamin premix 2/ |
0.6 |
0.6 |
Fresh livestock blood * |
35.0 |
35.0 |
Groundnut cake * |
20.0 |
20.0 |
Rice Bran * |
25.4 |
35.4 |
Total |
140.0 |
140.0 |
Approximate protein content, % dry basis |
45 |
40 |
1/ Ingredients marked with an asterisk (*) to be mixed with further addition of 10 parts water and cooked or steamed. The moist slurry is then blended with the other ingredients that had been previously thoroughly mixed. The resultant dough is extruded through a meat grinder fitted with a die of diametre 1,0 mm for fry, 2.0 mm for fingerlings, and 3.0 or 4.00 mm for big fish depending on size2/ See Footnote 2 of Table 20 for composition.
Table 22
Moist-type Pelleted Diets Prepared and Evaluated for Sea Bass (Dicentrarchus) and Sea Bream
(Tunisia)
Ingredients, % |
Diet |
|
1 |
2 |
|
Trash fish |
55 |
55 |
Wheat bran |
45 |
22.5 |
Soybean meal |
- |
22.5. |
Water |
- |
- |
Supplements |
2/ |
2/ |
Quantity prepared, kg |
0.9 |
0.9 |
Estimated moisture content, % |
48.5 |
48.5 |
Estimated protein content, % (on dry basis) |
30 |
42 |
Raw material cost per kg diet (T. Din. millions) |
43.15 |
59.15 |
Cost per kg on dry basis (T. Din, millims) |
84 |
115 |
1/ Dry components of each diet were sent to a milling shop for fine grinding. Trash fish were ground in the frozen state using a 0.5 HP mincer fitted with a 4 mm die plate. The diets were then prepared as follows:Dry ingredients and the vitamin supplement and trash fish were weighed out in the proper proportion and blended manually (with the aid of a laddle) in a plastic pail to a dough-like consistency. Further blending was achieved by passing the mixed dough once through the mincer using the 4 mm die plate.
Final pelleting was done by passing the feed a second time through the mincer, using a 3 mm die plate
2/ For convenience, one tablet of one-a-day multi-vitamin for human use was added per kg of diet prepared agter pulverizing. The expected cost of supplementing feed with feed-grade vitamin mixtures is estimated at 5 millims per kg of the moist pellets. For moist type feed containing trash fish as an ingredient component, the prepared diet should contain supplemented vitamins at the following levels (per kg):
Vitamin A |
4 000 i.u. |
Vitamin D3 |
750 i.u. |
Thiamine hydrochloride |
2.5 mg |
Riboflavin |
12.5 mg |
Calcium pantothenate |
40.0 mg |
Niacin |
30.0 mg |
Inositol |
40.0 mg |
Pyridoxine |
4.0 mg |
Biotin |
0.025 mg |
Absorbic acid |
50 mg |
Vitamin E |
25 mg |
Table 23
Test Diets Proposed for Comparative Feeding Trials involving Sea Bass (Dicentrarchus) in Raceways at the Government Fishery Station in Salammbo (Tunisia)
Diet No. 1/ |
1 |
2 |
3 |
4 |
5 |
Trash fish |
60 |
60 |
60 |
60 |
60 |
Wheat bran |
39 |
34 |
29 |
24 |
19 |
Soybean meal |
- |
5 |
10 |
15 |
20 |
Vitamin supplemented 2/ |
1 |
1 |
1 |
1 |
1 |
Total |
100 |
100 |
100 |
100 |
100 |
Estimated dry matter content, % |
48 |
48 |
48 |
48 |
48 |
Protein (dry basis), % |
30 |
32 |
35 |
38 |
50 |
Raw material cost (millims/kg) |
40.8 |
44.8 |
48.8 |
52.8 |
58.8 |
1/ The diets should be prepared in the manner described in Table 20. These diets variously meet the dietary requirements for sea bass, sea bream, mullets as well as common carp. The diets with higher protein content should be suitable for all age sizes of the carnivorous species as well as for fry and fingerlings of the mullet and common carp. It will be more economical to feed diets of lower protein content to juvenile and adult stock of mullets and common carp2/ See foot-note 2 in Table 22 for composition. If prepared by the station, wheat bran may be used as the carrier.
Table 24 - 30 Percent Protein Diets for Warm-water Species 1/
1/ Suitable for fry and fingerlings of: carps, tilapias, cat-fishes, pacus and mullets
Table 25 - 25 Percent Protein Diets for Warm-water Species 1/
1/ Suitable for juveniles and growers of: carps, tilapias, cat-fishes, pacus and mullets
The nutrient requirements of this species are fairly well established. Recent studies have shown that protein content of trout diets can be predominantly of vegetable origin provided levels of the essential animo acids lysine and methionine in the diet are adequate.
In areas like the Andean region of Venezuela where fish meal, the main protein source in traditional trout diets, is a scarce commodity, alternatives have to be found for its substitution. Slaughterhouse waste may more readily be available in areas where trout farms are located. A diet that consisted primarily of slaughterhouse waste and cereal by-products was therefore prepared and tested on trout fry and fingerlings at the Government trout farm at Boccono, Venezuela. The composition of this diet is detailed in Table 26. Feed conversions (on dry feed basis) were 1.75 for fry and 0.97 for fingerlings.
Table 26 - Composition of Trout Fry/Fingerling Ration made from Slaughterhouse Waste
Ingredient |
Percentage |
Bovine livers, fresh |
53 |
Bovine lungs, fresh |
20 |
Bovine blood, fresh |
10 |
Wheat bran |
10 |
Wheat flour |
6 |
Bone meal |
0.5 |
Salt |
0.25 |
Vitamin mixture |
0.25 |
Calculated analysis (on dry basis): | |
Crude protein, % |
50 |
Methionine + Cystine, % |
1.6 |
Lysine, % |
4.8 |
Calcium, % |
1.0 |
Phosphorus, % |
1.2 |
Digestible energy, Kcal/g |
4.0 |
1/ For full details of the experiment, see "Pisciculture Venezuela. Resultos y Recommendaciones del Proyecto VEN/79/002, FAO, 1980".
The feed was produced by first mincing the fresh animal organs before mixing with the dry ingredients. The moist dough was then steamed in a steam cooker made from the cut off bottom half of a 55-gallon steel drum. The feed "loaf" that resulted was then extruded into moist pellets before feeding, using a motor driven meat chopper fitted with a 3 mm extruder plate.
On-farm processing of moist pelleted trout feeds made from dry pellets can be easily carried out by first adding water to the high carbohydrate components, cooking, and then blending the cooked mixture with the remaining dry components. Moist pellets can then be made by passing the final dough mix through a meat chopper fitted with an extruder plate of the desired size.
The composition of seven practical trout rations formulated for use in a trout farm in Venezuela is shown in Table 27.
Because commercial trout farms normally involve heavy capital investments and are usually quite large, all aspects of their operation are designed for efficient production. Because the feeding operation also constitutes the biggest cost, regular sources of efficient feeds of consistent quality are necessary. Industrial feeds can more easily meet the criteria of quality, consistency and regular supply. Manufactured trout rations are usually based on least-cost formulations by computer. Table 28 shows the results of least-cost formulation of trout rations carried out for the Department of Fisheries, Mexico. The ingredient list used was similar to the one employed for formulating diets for the warm water species described earlier. Table 29 shows the quality constraints and detailed results.
Table 27 - Practical Rations for Trout Culture (Venezuela)
|
Ration No. |
||||||
1 |
2 |
3 |
4 |
5 |
6 |
7 |
|
Fish meal |
10 |
25 |
34 |
10 |
32 |
38 |
20 |
Meat meal |
20 |
13 |
11 |
20 |
7.5 |
- |
20 |
Blood meal |
10 |
- |
- |
20 |
- |
- |
20 |
Bone meal |
10 |
- |
- |
10 |
- |
- |
10 |
Tomato seed meal |
20 |
- |
- |
10 |
- |
- |
10 |
Wheat bran |
10 |
25 |
20 |
20 |
18 |
19 |
10 |
Rice bran |
19.5 |
- |
- |
9.5 |
- |
- |
9.5 |
Soyabean meal |
- |
6 |
11 |
- |
18 |
10 |
- |
Cottonseed meal |
- |
6 |
- |
- |
- |
23 |
- |
Whey powder |
- |
12.5 |
16 |
- |
11 |
45 |
- |
Molasses |
- |
- |
2 |
- |
- |
- |
- |
Maize |
- |
12 |
- |
- |
- |
- |
- |
Brewer's yeast |
- |
- |
5.5 |
- |
13 |
5 |
- |
Vitamin and Mineral Premix |
0.5 |
0.5 |
0.5 |
0.5 |
0.5 |
0.5 |
0.5 |
Total |
100 |
100 |
100 |
100 |
100 |
100 |
100 |
Calculated analysis: |
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
Protein, % |
32 |
32 |
38 |
38 |
40 |
40 |
43 |
Table 28 - Computer Formulated Least Cost Trout Rations (Mexico)
Ingredients |
Fry and Fingerlings |
Grower I |
Grower II |
Brood Fish |
Protein Contents, % |
43.0 |
36.0 |
40.0 |
40.0 |
Extruded whole soyabeans |
68.94 |
39.94 |
45.04 |
29.85 |
Soyabean meal |
- |
20.1 |
16.3 |
26.2 |
Sunflower seed meal |
- |
- |
2.0 |
1.05 |
Fish meal |
20.0 |
5.3 |
14.0 |
13.27 |
Maize gluten |
10.0 |
10.0 |
10.0 |
10.0 |
Sorghum |
- |
10.0 |
10.0 |
10.0 |
Cottonseed meal |
- |
5.0 |
- |
5.0 |
Molasses |
- |
5.0 |
1.4 |
3.65 |
Dicalcium phosphate |
- |
1.0 |
- |
- |
Limestone powder |
- |
2.3 |
- |
0.15 |
d1-Methionine |
0.26 |
0.27 |
0.29 |
0.09 |
1-Lysine |
0.1 |
0.39 |
|
0.27 |
Vitamin and Mineral Premix |
0.7 |
0.7 |
0.7 |
0.7 |
Table 29 Least Cost Formulations for Trout 1/
|
Fry and fingerling |
Grower (Summer) |
Grower (Winter) |
Brood Fish | |
A. CONSTRAINTS 2/ |
|
|
|
| |
|
RHS |
|
|
|
|
|
Protein, % |
43.0 |
36 |
40 |
40 |
|
Lysine, % |
2.9 |
2.4 |
2.7 |
2.4 |
|
Methionine + cystine, % |
1.7 |
1.4 |
1.6 |
1.4 |
|
Lipid, % |
8.0 |
5.0 |
6.0 |
5.0 |
|
ME, Kcal/g |
3.3 |
2.8 |
3.0 |
2.8 |
|
Calcium, % |
0.8 |
0.5 |
0.5 |
0.8 |
|
Phosphorus, total, % |
0.8 |
0.8 |
0.8 |
0.8 |
|
Ranges |
|
|
|
|
|
Calcium, % |
0.7 |
1.0 |
1.0 |
0.7 |
|
Phosphorus, % |
0.5 |
0.5 |
0.5 |
0.5 |
|
Bounds (%) |
|
|
|
|
|
Alfalfa meal (UP) |
0.0 |
10.0 |
10.0 |
10.0 |
|
Fish meal (LO) |
15.0 |
5.0 |
5.0 |
5.0 |
|
Molasses (UP) |
0.0 |
5.0 |
5.0 |
5.0 |
|
Sorghum (UP) |
0.0 |
10.0 |
10.0 |
10.0 |
|
Cottonseed meal (UP) |
5.0 |
15.0 |
15.0 |
0.0 |
|
Maize gluten (FX) |
10.0 |
10.0 |
10.0 |
10.0 |
|
Vitamin premix (FX) |
0.6 |
0.5 |
0.5 |
0.6 |
|
Mineral premix (FX) |
0.1 |
0.1 |
0.1 |
0.1 |
B. SOLUTIONS |
|
|
|
| |
|
Diet | ||||
|
I |
IIA |
IIB |
III | |
|
Ingredients, kg/tonne diet 3/ |
|
|
|
|
|
Extruded whole soyabeans |
689.4 |
399.4 |
450.4 |
298.5 |
|
Soyabean meal |
- |
201.0 |
163.0 |
262.0 |
|
Sunflower seed meal |
|
- |
20.0 |
10.5 |
|
Fish meal |
200.0 |
53.0 |
140.0 |
132.7 |
|
Maize gluten |
100.0 |
100.0 |
100.0 |
100.0 |
|
Sorghum |
- |
100.0 |
100.0 |
100.0 |
|
Cottonseed meal |
- |
50.0 |
- |
50.0 |
|
Molasses |
- |
50.0 |
14.0 |
36.5 |
|
Calcium orthophosphate |
- |
10.0 |
- |
- |
|
Limestone powder |
- |
23.0 |
- |
1.5 |
|
d1-Methionine |
2.6 |
2.7 |
2.9 |
0.9 |
|
1-Lysine |
1.0 |
3.9 |
2.7 |
- |
|
Vitamin Premix |
6.0 |
6.0 |
6.0 |
6.0 |
|
Mineral Premix |
1.0 |
1.0 |
1.0 |
1.0 |
|
Analysis |
|
|
|
|
|
Metabolizable energy, Kcal/g |
3.3 |
2.8 |
3.0 |
2.8 |
|
Crude protein, % |
43.0 |
36.0 |
40.0 |
40.0 |
|
Lysine, % |
2.90 |
2.40 |
2.70 |
2.40 |
|
Methionine + Cystine, % |
1.70 |
1.40 |
1.60 |
1.40 |
|
Total phosphorus, % |
0.93 |
0.8 |
0.8 |
0.8 |
|
Calcium, % |
1.00 |
1.5 |
0.76 |
0.8 |
|
Fibre, % |
4.8 |
5.0 |
5.0 |
5.0 |
|
Lipid, % |
15.5 |
8.3 |
10.0 |
7.3 |
|
Raw Material Cost, Mex.$ per kg diet |
10.11 |
8.27 |
9.08 |
8.18 |
1/ Formulations performed on IBM 370 computer at ALBAMEX, using MPSX software package.2/ Constraints provided by author. For full explanation of RHS, Ranges and Bounds, see Chow, K.W. et al, 1980. Linear programming in Fish Diet Formulation. In Fish feed technology, ADCP/REP/80/11, 241-86, FAO, Rome.
3/ See Table 14, Table of composition of Mexican feedstuffs.