Annexes

Annex 1: Medicines
Annex 2: Important veterinary tools (instruments)
Annex 3: Important techniques
Annex 4: Selection of animals for breeding
Annex 5: Record keeping
Annex 6: Weights and measures
Annex 7: Explanation of terms and index

Annex 1: Medicines

Terms and words used in medicine

Medicines (drugs) when given properly will cure animals. When you use medicines you will need to know the following words:

· Intramuscular (i.m.) injection, intravenous (i.v.) injection and subcutaneous injection (see Injections Annex 3).
· Drenching, boluses, dipping and spraying (see Annex 3).
· Powder, a dry medicine which is mixed with water to give to the animal or a dry medicine which is used on the outside of the animal.
· Ointment, creamy or oily medicine to spread on the skin or on different parts of the body.
· Drops, liquid used in small amounts, such as eye or ear drops.
· Dress, to clean a wound and put on disinfectant.
· Sulpha and antibiotics, medicines which are used to kill germs.
· Litre (L), millilitre (ml), kilogram (Kg), gram (gm), milligram (1 gm = 1,000 mgs) (see Annex 7).
· International units (I.U.) are units used to measure antibiotics.

Name of medicine (drugs), how to use it, how much to give and other information
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Size and weight of animals

It is very important to know how much medicine you need to give to each animal. This book deals with 14 different types of animals which can be divided into groups according to their size.

Large animals:

Camel, horse, large cattle and buffalo.

Medium animals:

Small cattle, donkeys, mules, llamas and large pigs.

Small animals:

Sheep, goats, alpacas, small pigs, young cattle, young buffalo and young camels.

Very small animals:

Young sheep, goats and piglets.

Birds:

Chickens, ducks and turkeys.

R1 Disinfectant for wounds

These are usually liquids and are used to clean dirt from the wound and kill germs.

· Salt water: Add a large spoonful of salt to a litre of clean water to make a very cheap and good disinfectant for wounds.
· Acriflavine: An orange or red powder. Prepare by adding one part of powder to 1 000 parts of clean water.-This is very good for cleaning wounds and abscesses after removing the pus.
· Tincture of iodine: A dark brown liquid used to dress wounds.
· Gentian violet: A liquid for dressing wounds and burns.
· Alcohol: Clear like water, this is good for cleaning wounds and also the hands before carrying out operations e.g. castrating animals.
· Dettol and TCP (solution of phenol and sodium salicylate): Trade names for disinfectants which can be used on the animal, for your hands and instruments.

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R2 Disinfectants for animal houses and equipment

· Hot water and soap. Carbolic soap is the best if you can find it.
· Jeyes, Chlorox and creosote can be used by adding 5 parts to 100 parts of water.

R3 Dressings for mouth lesions (mouth wash)

Use a big syringe to flush out the mouth (see Annex 2).

· Salt and water or potassium permanganate or hydrogen peroxide.
· Copper sulphate (blue stone). Use 2 parts in 100 parts of water.

R4 Dressings for the foot

These solutions are used to kill germs causing foot rot or infecting wounds of the foot.

· Tincture of iodine or Dettol or TCP (solution of phenol and sodium salicylate).
· Copper sulphate (blue stone) use it as a 10% solution by adding 10 parts to 90 parts of water.
· Formaldehyde: This is available as a 40% solution in bottles. Add one part of this to 8 parts of water to make a solution of the correct strength.
· Chloramphenicol: A spray. This is good for use on the foot and on other wounds.

R5 Antibiotic powders for wounds

These must only be used to kill germs in wounds.

· Chloramphenicol, tetracycline or any antibiotic as a powder can be dusted over the wound.

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R6 Antibiotics for injections

These are injected into the animal either subcutaneously, intramuscular or intravenously.

· Procaine penicillin G: Give 100,000 I.U. for every 10 kg of body weight by intramuscular injection for 3 to 4 days.
· Benzathine penicillin G: Give 120,000 I.U. for every 10 kg of body weight by a single intramuscular injection.
· Oxytetracycline: Give 50 mg for every 10 kg of body weight by intramuscular injection for 3 to 4 days.

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R7 Antibiotics by mouth (oral)

These may be as powders, boluses, capsule, tablets or pastes.

· Oxytetracycline tablets: Give one 250 mg tablet for every 20 kg of body weight every day for 4 to 5 days.

R8 Sulpha drugs for wounds

These powders are very good for keeping the wound clean and dry.

· Sulphanilamide or sulphathiazol: These are very good dusting powders for wounds.
· Negasunt powder: This is a mixture of mainly sulphanilamide and can be used daily on a wound.

R9 Sulpha drugs by mouth (oral)

· Sulphaguanidine: This may be given orally as a bolus or can be broken and mixed with the animal's feed. Give 50 mg for every 10 kg of body weight every day for 3 to 4 days.

R10 Sulpha drugs by injection

· Sulphadimidine solution: Give 1 gm for every 10 kg of body weight by intravenous or subcutaneous injection every day for 3 to 4 days.

These may be available as drenches, pastes, boluses or for subcutaneous injection.

· Albendazole: Given as a drench or paste is very good against roundworms, tapeworms and flukes.
· Levamisole: Given as a drench or subcutaneous injection kills roundworms and lungworms.
· Nitroxynil: Given by subcutaneous injection is very good against both young and adult flukes.

R12 Internal parasites of horses, donkeys and mules

These may be available as drenches, pastes or powders to mix in the feed.

· Fenbendazole and febantel: Both are very good against young and adult gut worms and lungworms.
· Haloxon: Mixed in a feed this is active against gut worms, lungworms and bots.

R13 Internal parasites of pigs

These are available as drenches, for injection or to mix in the feed.

· Levamisole: Very good activity and can be given subcutaneously.
· Piperazine salts: Usually mixed in a feed, active against gut worms.
· Parbendazole and fenbendazole: As a drench or in feed.

R14 Internal parasites of poultry

Birds can treated by giving medicine orally or adding it to feed or water.

· Piperazine salts: can be given as a dose by mouth or may be added to feed or drinking water.
· Tetramisole or levamisole: given in the drinking water.

R15 Treating lice, fleas and mites

Treatments are available as dusting powders, pour on, dips and sprays.

· Coumaphos: Used for ruminants as sprays, dips and powder and as powder for pigs, poultry and horses. Active against fly maggots.
· Amitraz: As a pour on or spray for pigs against mange and lice.
· Lindane: As an oil used for mange in equines.
· Malathion: Used as powder for poultry.

R16 Treatment for ticks

· Coumaphos, diazinon and flumethrin: Available as dips and sprays.

R17 Treatment for trypanosomes

· Suramin: Very good in camels, also used for equines.
· Samorin: Used in ruminants and equines.

R18 Coccidiostats for chickens and ducks

Coccidiostats are mixed with feed or drinking water.

· Sulphaquinoxiline: Given twice a day for 2 days in water, repeated 3 days later.
· Amprolium and zoalene: Given in the feed.

R19 Mastitis

Antibiotics or sulpha drugs given by mouth or by injection are used to treat severe mastitis.

· Penicillin and streptomycin: Special mastitis tube, insert the end of the tube into the teat and empty the contents into the udder. Massage udder. Repeat treatment for 3 days after each milking.
· Tertracycline for intramammary use.

R20 Bloat (tympany)

Many treatments given in Unit 8.

· Stop Bloat and Birp are commercially produced treatments for bloat.

R21 Diarrhoea

Antibiotics or sulpha drugs are given by mouth when fever is associated with diarrhoea. Water containing salt and sugar is given by mouth (see Unit 68 and R27).

· Catechu: A brown powder which is mixed with water and given as a drench. Small animals give 2 gm, larger animals 15 gm.
· Chalk: Mix with water and give as drench. Large animals 120 gm, medium animal 80 gm, small 40 gm and very small animal 20 gm.
· Kaolin (China clay): A white powder mixed with water and given as a drench, give twice as much as for chalk.

R22 Colic or constipation (animal cannot defecate)

· Liquid paraffin or linseed oil given by mouth. Large animal give 500 ml (0.5 L), medium animal 250 ml (0.25 L), small animal 100 ml and very small animal give 20 to 50 ml. There are many forms of paraffin. Make sure that you use medicinal liquid paraffin. Check with your veterinarian.
· Magnesium sulphate (Epsom salts): White powder which is dissolved in water and given by mouth. Dose for large animals is 500 gm, medium animals 250 gm, small animals 50 - 80 gm and very small animals 5 to 20 gm. Mix the powder with clean water and give as a drench. Do not give horses, donkeys and mules more than 100 gm.
· Castor oil: Give to horses, mules, donkeys and pigs.

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R23 Drops and ointments for eyes

· Tetracycline ointment: Put a little ointment in the corner of the eye, 4 or 5 times a day, for 3 to 5 days.
· Betamethazone and neomycin eye drops: Put drops in twice a day for 3 to 4 days.

R24 Drops for ears

Warm water and soap can be used to gently clean the ear.

· Gammexane: Mixed in paraffin and used to treat ear mange.

R25 Ringworm treatment

· Tincture of iodine: Remove crusts around lesions. Apply iodine solution every 2 days as required.
· Griseofulvin: This is a powder which is added to the feed.

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R26 Poisoning treatment

· Charcoal mixed with water. Give 1 gm of charcoal for every 20 kg body weight. Can repeat daily for 4 - 5 days.
· Kaolin (China clay) mixed with water. Give as a drench, 10 gm to a small animal, 200 gm to a horse, cow or camel. Can repeat daily for 4 to 5 days.

R27 Oral rehydration fluids

Can be made by adding 6 teaspoons of sugar and half a teaspoon of salt to 1 litre of clean, warm water. Give this as a drench or from nipple bottle.

· Sheep or goats give 500 ml 4 times a day for 3 days.
· Larger animals give 5% of body weight 2 times a day.

R28 Vitamin deficiency in ruminants

· Vitamin A, D or E: Inject into the muscle according to body weight. May be repeated in 30 days.
· Vitamin B1 or a mixture of B vitamins: Inject according to label directions into the vein, muscle or under the skin. Injections may be repeated daily.

Annex 2: Important veterinary tools (instruments)

There are a number of veterinary tools (instruments) which the PAHCW will need in order to be able to carry out his work. These are:

· Thermometer with carrying case

The thermometer is an important tool (see Unit 4) and must be kept clean, carefully stored and carried so that it is not broken.

· Syringes and needles

Syringes are made of glass or plastic and are used to inject drugs (medicines) or vaccines into the body. There are two types of needle fitments and you must make sure that the needle fits the syringe correctly before you use it.

Different sizes of needles are needed for different injections. Thin needles are used to give intramuscular injections and shorter needles are used to give subcutaneous injections. Ask your veterinarian about the needles and syringes you will need to use in your work.

Syringes and needles

· Dose syringe

Large syringes made of metal, plastic or glass can be used to wash out (flush) mouth lesions, wounds or abscesses. These are used with a nozzle and not a needle fitted to them.

Dose syringe

· Drench bottle

Any long-necked bottle will do. If 20 cm of rubber hose is attached to the mouth of the bottle it will make it easier to put the medicine into the mouth (see 4, Annex 3).

· Stomach tube (See 6, Annex 3)

· Teat Catheter

This is used to remove milk from the udder of an animal with mastitis (see Unit 22).

· Castration instruments

These are, the Burdizzo, the emasculator and the elastrator with rubber rings (see Unit 14).

· Scalpels, blades or sharp knives

These are necessary to cut and open wounds and abscesses and to use for castration and other simple operations. A clean, sharp, shaving razor can also be used.

· Trocar and cannula

Used to get rid of gas from the rumen of an animal with bloat (see Unit 8).

· Nose holder and twitch

The nose holder is used to control cattle and buffalo (see Unit 10) and can be made by the blacksmith. The twitch is used to control horses, donkeys or mules (see Unit 37) and you can make it yourself.

· Ropes to restrain animals

Ropes will be needed to tie up, control and cast animals (See Annex 3, Number 13).

· Hoof cutters and clippers

Hoof cutters are needed for hoof trimming (see Unit 11) and clippers are used for nails and teeth.

· Bottles of disinfectant, tincture of iodine and alcohol

These and some cotton wool, bandages and pads, or clean cotton cloths are needed for wounds.

· A strong bag

A strong leather or canvas bag is needed to carry tools in, to protect them and to keep them clean and dry.

Annex 3: Important techniques

1. Sterilisation of instruments
2. Injections
3. Vaccinations
4. Drenching
5. Boluses (tablets)
6. Stomach tubing
7. Cleaning the udder
8. Taking blood samples
9. Making blood smears
10. Collecting samples for the laboratory
11. Collecting faecal samples
12. Spraying
13. Dipping
14. Knots and tethering

1. Sterilisation of instruments

Sterilisation means killing germs. Syringes, needles, scalpel blades, teat catheters and scalpels must be thoroughly cleaned and sterilised before they are reused. Scrub away all blood and fat from the instruments and thoroughly clean them. You can use a brush and soap and water to do this. Put the instruments in a clean cooking pan or a metal container, cover them with clean water and boil for 15 minutes. Syringes must be separated into plunger and barrel for sterilising.

Sterilisation of instruments

Instruments which cannot be boiled should be thoroughly scrubbed clean and then placed in, or wiped with, alcohol or Dettol before being used again. Remember only use boiling wafer to sterilise syringes used for vaccinations. If chemicals are used on the syringes they can destroy the vaccination before it gets to the animal.

2. Injections

There are several ways to inject animals with drugs and vaccines.

· Intramuscular injections (i.m.)

Intramuscular injections (i.m.)

Inject into the muscle of the hip, the upper back leg, the middle of the neck, the shoulder or chest muscles. Point the needle straight into the muscle. Before injecting the drug, pull back the plunger a little to make sure that the needle did not enter a blood vessel. If blood enters the barrel of the syringe pull the syringe out and try another place. If no blood enters the barrel inject the drug into the animal.

· Intravenous injections (i.v.)

This injection is made into the big vein (jugular) in the neck. This vein collects blood from the head and carries it to the heart.

You will need someone to help you to control the animal and to find the vein. In order to make the vein show, block it at the base of the neck. Use your hand to do this in small animals and for large animals use a rope around the bottom of the neck. Blocking the vein will make the blood build up inside it and it will stand out like a cord or rope under the skin. Put the needle into the vein. Check that the needle is in the vein by pulling the plunger of the syringe, back a little when blood should show in the barrel. Remove your hand, or the rope, from the bottom of the neck and slowly inject the drug.

Intravenous injections (i.v.)

· Subcutaneous injection

This means injecting under the skin. It is done by picking up a loose fold of skin from the neck or shoulder. Take care not to inject into your fingers or that you push the needle in so much that it comes out on the other side of the skin fold.

Subcutaneous injection

· Intramammary injection

Used to empty antibiotics in an intramammary tube into the udder or to put drugs into the udder using a teat catheter (see Unit 22).

Intramammary injection

Remember that before you make any injection you should:
· Pick an area of skin free from faeces or mud
· Use a clean sterilised syringe and properly fitted needle
· Make sure your hands are clean

3. Vaccinations

Animals can be protected against some germs and diseases by giving them a vaccine. Vaccines are very important in stopping the spread of disease and are given by injection or by the mouth.

Some of the diseases discussed in this book, e.g. rinderpest, rabies, anthrax, African horse sickness and foot and mouth disease, can be prevented by vaccination. Some vaccines only need to be given once to the animal to protect it, but other vaccines, e.g. anthrax and foot and mouth disease, need to be given every year.

Talk to your veterinarian about the vaccines which are available and the way they must be given to the animals. You will also need to know how to keep the vaccine until it is used. Hot weather can spoil some vaccines and your veterinarian will advise you on keeping vaccines.

Remember when you vaccinate animals to change the needles after every few injections to prevent the spread of germs.

Talk to the people in your community and encourage them to vaccinate their animals. Keep records of all vaccinated animals (see Annex 5).

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Vaccine.................................................

Rinderpest .................................

Type (of animal).....................................

Cattle.........................................

Age of animal........................................

6 months old...............................

Frequency (No. of times to vaccinate).....

Once..........................................

Route (how to give vaccine)....................

Subcutaneous injection ...............

Vaccine

Type

Age

Frequency

Route

4. Drenching

Animals can be given medicine by drenching. Medicine is poured into the mouth from a bottle.

Drenching must be carried out carefully to make sure that the animal receives all of the medicine it needs and that none enters the lungs where it can cause respiratory problems or death.

Drenching with a bottle

Prepare the drench to be given to the animal. The drench can be given from a bottle provided by the veterinarian or use a clean glass bottle (Pepsi or beer bottle). A short piece of rubber tubing (20 cm) can be attached to the mouth of the bottle. To drench large animals:

· Restrain the animal.
· Hold the animal's head so that it is level or only slightly raised.
· Put the rubber tube into the mouth with the end of the tube or the bottle either on the middle of the tongue or in the cheek beside the teeth. Take care to avoid getting the glass bottle between the teeth when it could be broken.
· Pour the medicine in slowly, a little at a time, allowing the animal time to swallow the liquid.

If the animal coughs at any time allow it to lower its head and stop drenching when it is coughing. Take time to drench the animal. If a very large amount of medicine, such as more than half a litre, has to be given, it can take up to 15 minutes to give all of the drench.

Sheep and goats are more difficult to drench than cattle. They should be held so that their feet remain on the ground and the nose should be raised no higher than the eyes. Drench pigs and horses very slowly.

Sheep can be given a drench using a dose syringe or by using a rubber tube attached to a funnel.

Drenching with a bottle

5. Boluses (tablets)

Medicines can be given to animals as a bolus or tablets (pills). Large animals, e.g. cattle, buffalo and camels, can be given medicine in boluses, oval or round balls of the medicine. The bolus may sometimes be contained in a plastic container which stays in the rumen and the medicine slowly comes out over many months. This type of bolus is used to give cattle drugs against worms in the gut. Sheep and goats can be given boluses (or capsules) by using a balling gun. A pig cannot be given a bolus as it has a sort of pocket in its throat in which the medicine can become trapped.

The balling gun

A balling gun is a simple metal tube which is wider at one end to form a small container (head) in which the bolus is placed. A bar of metal or fixed rings are on the opposite side of the rod to allow the user to have a firm grip and to stop the tube being swallowed by the animal. A metal rod or plunger can be pushed through the hollow tube to push out the bolus when the balling gun has been pushed into the animal's mouth.

Giving an animal a bolus

Giving a bolus with a balling gun is done by:

· Place the bolus in the head of the gun.
· Restrain the animal to be treated and open its mouth.
· Put the balling gun way back into the mouth so that the head is placed behind the base of the animal's tongue.
· Push the plunger slowly to push the bolus out.

The animal should swallow the bolus immediately, but if it starts to choke or cough, lower its head so that the bolus drops out as it coughs.

Tablets may also be pushed over the back of the tongue by hand but you must take care not to be bitten. Wetting boli or dipping in oil makes them easier to swallow.

Giving an animal a bolus

6. Stomach tubing

Large quantities of liquid medicine are mainly given through a long rubber tube directly into the stomach. A stomach tube can also be used in the case of bloat (tympany) to release gases from the rumen. There are different varieties of stomach tubes for animals of different sizes. You will need to practice this technique as there is a risk of the tube passing down the windpipe into the lungs and causing death of the animal.

In order to stop the animal chewing the stomach tube you will need to put a metal pipe, or a block of wood with a hole in it, into the animal's mouth. Pass the stomach tube through the pipe or the wood into the stomach. Watch the animal carefully for signs of coughing. If the animal coughs the tube is in the lungs and you must take it out immediately.

Stomach tubing

If the animal does not cough smell the end of the tube and you should notice the bad smell of stomach gases. When you are sure that the tube is in the stomach you can pour the medicine down the tube.

Do not use the stomach tube unless you have been trained to do it.

7. Cleaning the udder

Many animals are kept for their milk. The value of any milk animal is reduced if it has mastitis. The condition of the udder and the cleanliness of the milk is very important for the well-being of not only the animal but also of the people who use the milk. Cleaning the udder and mastitis were described in Unit 22.

If mastitis continues in a group of animals it is advisable to use a teat disinfectant when milking them. A teat dip is a liquid in which the teat is dipped after milking the animal. After milking germs can pass into the udder through the teat canal. Dipping the teat in a disinfectant stops any germs from entering the udder and causing mastitis.

If mastitis is a problem in your community talk to your veterinarian about it. He can advise you on improving milking hygiene and the best disinfectant to use as a teat dip.

Cleaning the udder

8. Taking blood samples

You may be asked to send a blood sample to the veterinary laboratory. Your veterinarian will send to you a small, clean bottle with a tight-fitting cover for the blood. The bottle may have something in it, usually a liquid, which will stop the blood from clotting (getting thick).

Collecting blood

Blood samples are usually taken from the large neck vein. In order to take the sample of blood you must find the vein as for an intravenous (i.v.) injection (see 2, Annex 3). However now:

· The syringe is empty, dry and the plunger is pushed right down to the end of the barrel.
· When you are sure that the needle is in the vein do not remove your hand or the rope which is blocking the vein.
· Slowly pull out the plunger until you have collected enough blood in the syringe (usually 5 - 10 ml).
· Put the blood straight into the bottle.

All blood samples must be kept in a cool place away from direct sunshine.

You may find that some people in your community will refuse to allow blood samples to be taken from their animals. You should explain to them that the whole community will benefit if the veterinarian can check their animals for diseases. Tell them that the small amount of blood taken is easily and quickly replaced by the animal's body.

Your veterinarian may give you a special tube, called a vacutainer, to collect blood. You must ask him to explain how you use this tube to collect blood.

9. Making blood smears

Veterinarians need blood smears to check for some diseases. A smear is a very thin layer of blood, on a clean glass slide, from a live animal or one which has recently died. The slide can be placed on a microscope and examined for the germs which cause diseases.

Making a blood smear

· Restrain the live animal and find a blood vessel in its ear, clean the ear with alcohol or soap and water. Dry the ear.
· Pierce the blood vessel with a sharp, clean needle or knife point.

Making a blood smear

· Collect one drop of blood on a clean glass slide and place the slide on a clean flat surface.
· Take another clean glass slide and touch the blood with one end of it so that the blood runs along the edge of the slide. Hold the second slide at an angle (45°) and push it along the length of the first slide to form a thin smear of blood.

Making a blood smear

· Allow the smear to dry. Take two smears from each animal.

Put the slides face to face with a matchstick at each end to keep the smears from touching. Wrap them carefully and take, or send them, to the laboratory.

In the laboratory the smear will be treated to make the germs easily seen under the microscope.

10. Collecting samples for the laboratory

You may need to send samples to the veterinary laboratory so that the cause of a disease can be discovered. This is very important as the veterinarian can then tell you the best treatment and how to prevent the disease spreading. It is important that the samples are properly collected and sent to the laboratory so that the right checks can be made.

Collecting blood and making blood smears has been mentioned previously (see 8, 9 Annex 3).

To collect other samples you will need special wide-mouthed containers and a preservative (liquid to keep the sample from going bad). The type of preservative will vary according to the type of sample. Check with your veterinarian about containers and preservatives to use and if the samples should be kept cool or at normal temperatures.

Samples which can be collected are:

· Skin scrapings to check for external parasites. The scrapings are put in glycerine.
· Pus from lumps and wounds.
· Milk to check for germs causing mastitis.
· External parasites such as ticks, lice, fleas and fly maggots.
· Parasites such as tapeworms, flukes and roundworms which you may find in fresh faeces or in a dead animal.
· Faecal samples.

Your veterinarian may want samples from inside the body of a dead animal:

· Pieces of lung, liver, kidney or brain.
· Pieces of the intestine or the contents of the stomach.

Mark (label) samples with information such as date, number or identity of animal, age, owner's name, the region, village or community, etc.

11. Collecting faecal samples

Your veterinarian may ask for samples of faeces (dung) to be collected and sent to the laboratory. Place the sample in a clean wide-mouthed container.

Samples can be collected by:

· Collecting by hand from inside the rectum of the animal.
· Collecting dung from the ground as soon as it is passed by the animal.

Mark (label) the samples and keep them in a cool place.

12. Spraying

In some countries animals are sprayed with treatments against external parasites and are not dipped. Spraying can be as good as dipping. The system uses less water and drug treatments but the equipment and the engines, generators, etc. are more expensive and must be maintained. Power spray systems can only be operated using liquid treatments in water, not powders dissolved in water.

Hand spraying can be carried out. It takes time and is not quite as good as dipping or power spraying. However it is a useful way to treat animals if no dip is available. To try to treat more than 10 animals at a time is not a good idea because of the time and amount of drug treatment used. Spraying can be used to treat pregnant animals which cannot be dipped.

Equipment for hand spraying

Hand spraying can be carried out using any type of hand pump or means of applying the treatment all over the animal.

Spraying by hand must be done thoroughly in order to be useful. All parts of the animal will need to be treated. The animals should be tethered or tied up securely between posts or held in a crush or race. All parts of the animal should be sprayed as follows:

· Hooves, under the tail and down to the scrotum or udder and the inside of the back legs should be thoroughly wetted.
· Then spray the belly, sides and back, and spray the outside and insides of the front legs and up under the brisket.
· Lastly spray the head and neck making sure that inside the ears is also sprayed.

Your veterinary officer will advise you on spraying your animals, what to use and how to do it. You must remember that the spray solutions are poisonous and you should take great care when using them. Your veterinarian will advise you on this and you must follow his instructions carefully. Never throw away left over spray solution where children can find it or where it may reach a water supply or river. It is poisonous to children, animals and fish as well as you.

13. Dipping

Dipping is the most efficient and practical way of treating ruminants for skin parasites. Your community or area may already have a tank for dipping which you can use or the veterinary service may have a mobile dip tank which can be taken to your community when needed. Your community may decide to construct a tank. You will need to talk to your veterinary officer for advice on what to treat animals with and how to use the tank. He will also be able to advise you on how to construct a tank.

The dipping tank

The animals are first collected in a collecting pen. They are then driven into a narrow passageway (race) which is too narrow for them to turn around. In the race is a footbath (trough of water) through which the animals walk. This removes mud from the feet before they enter the tank.

The animals are forced forward into the tank and are completely dipped in the treatment it contains. The animals walk out of the tank along another passageway (race) which has a sloping concrete floor to allow all solution dripping off the animals to run back into the tank. This race is only wide enough to take one animal at a time and can be fitted with gates to allow animals to be held and marked or given individual treatment.

The dip should have a roof to protect it from rain. It should be well fenced around so that animals cannot get at it.

The dipping tank

How much dip to use

For large numbers of cattle a tank that will hold 13,500 to 16,000 litres will be needed. For smaller numbers of animals a tank holding 9,000 litres will do.

When the tank is filled, the capacity (volume) of the tank can be worked out by counting the number of drums, of a known size, used to fill the tank with water. Mark the wall at intervals, or use a measuring stick, to show the amount in the tank. Add the correct amount of dip treatment to the water.

After the dip tank is used you will need to record the amount of dip left in it. Water can be lost from the tank in hot weather or rain will make the level rise. Before the tank is used again you will need to check the level of water and dip in the tank. You will need to add water and the correct amount of dip to bring the volume to the correct level again.

Using the dip

When using the dip you should always remember:

· Do not dip on cold or wet days.
· Do not dip animals when they are hot or they may drink the dip. Keep the animals in the collecting pen and allow them to drink before they are dipped.
· Always make sure that the head of each animal is pushed beneath the surface of the water and completely covered.
· Do not keep dipped, wet animals standing around. Allow the dip to drain off then move them to pasture.
· Periodically test the concentration of dip in the tank and keep it at the correct strength.
· Care should be taken to allow animals to enter and leave the tank one at a time. If they struggle to leave the tank some may be pushed under and drown.
· Do not dip small and large animals together as the larger ones can jump onto smaller ones and push them under.
· Do not dip pregnant animals that are close to giving birth. Help young animals through the tank using a crooked stick.
· Keep the footbath and races clean, clear waste material (e.g. straw) off the top of the dip after it is used.
· Always completely clean out the dip tank once or twice a year.
· Keep a record of the animals which have been dipped (see Annex 5).

Always remember that the treatments you use can be poisonous to your animals and you if they are not used properly. Be careful when you use these treatments. Your veterinary officer will advise you when to treat your animals, what treatment to use and how to do it correctly. Always follow his advice on handling the treatments and how you can get rid of the waste.
If dip solution gets into a water supply used by animals it can cause their deaths by poisoning. If it gets into rivers, streams or ponds it will kill any fish there.

14. Knots and tethering

A tether is the rope or chain by which an animal is tied. Ropes are used to tie up animals, to cast them and to confine them to one place.

It is important to keep a length of rope to use in your work and you must have some knowledge of the type of knots which are used to tie up or cast animals.

Non-slip knots

This type of knot is used to tie an animal with a rope around the neck or its legs. This knot will keep the rope around the neck or leg fixed and will prevent the rope from becoming tight and hurting the animal. It is also used around the neck of cattle when they are cast.

Non-slip knots

Safety knot

Use this knot when you want to be able to quickly release a knot. Pulling the free end of the rope will quickly free the animal. Use it to tether horses or to tie together the legs of an animal which has been cast.

Safety knot

Double loop

This is used to make a loop in the end of a rope when making an halter to put around the head of an animal. It is also used when a rope is put around the horns of an animal to control it.

Double loop

Tying two ropes together

Use this when you need to join two lengths of rope together. The two ropes are held together and a loop is made towards the ends. The free ends of the rope are then passed through the loop four times and the knot is pulled tight. The ends of rope at the knot can then be cut.

Tying two ropes together

Rolling hitch

This knot is useful when tying a rope to a Pole. It will not slip downwards.

Rolling hitch

Annex 4: Selection of animals for breeding

Breeding animals

All animals used for breeding must be fit and healthy. Good and bad qualities can be passed from the parents to the young. This is called heredity and the young will inherit characteristics from both the parents.

Why select animals for breeding?

The young animal will have the same characteristics (qualities) as its parents. Carefully choosing animals for breeding means that good, useful young animals are produced.

Animals which produce good quantities of milk can pass this characteristic to their young. Cattle and sheep which quickly grow big and fat can produce calves and iambs with the same characteristics. Selecting good males and females is the means of improving the quality of livestock in the future.

Selecting animals

The easiest way to improve your animals is by selecting a good male. In this way good characteristics can be quickly spread through the herd.

If you have ten cows and one of them is good she will produce one good calf each time she is used for breeding. If you breed the ten cows with a good bull each cow can produce a good calf. So selecting a good male will improve the quality of your herd more quickly.

When selecting animals for breeding you should take into consideration the following points:

1. Body shape

The shape of the body must be considered when choosing animals for breeding:

· The animal should be well built and its body well proportioned and muscled. The muscles of the back will give you a good idea of the animal's condition.
· Animals with any type of deformity (bad shape) should not be used for breeding as many of the deformities can be inherited by the young. Animals with badly shaped jaws or teeth cannot be selected as this can be inherited and will mean that the animal cannot eat properly.

Badly shaped jaws

2. Legs of the animals

Good legs and feet are important so that the animal can get around to feed. The legs of the female will have to carry extra weight during pregnancy. The male will have difficulty in mounting the female if its back legs are weak.

3. Reproductive organs of males

The testicles and penis of the male must be correctly formed and free from deformities and infection. The testicles must be:

· Equal in size.
· Both testicles should be down in the scrotum. Do not use a male in which only one testicle is down in the scrotum.
· The larger the testicles the better.
· The testicles must be firm and not soft.

The penis of the sheep or goat can be examined by holding the male in the sitting position, as for trimming the feet. The skin around the penis can be held in one hand and the end of the penis pushed out by pushing upwards with the other hand from the base of the penis. If blood, pus or a discharge is seen, or if the penis is unusual, do not use the animal for breeding as this will spread disease to the rest of the livestock.

4. What are the animals used for?

When selecting cows, buffalos and other animals for milk production you should select females which have good udders and teats and are docile. Docile animals let down the milk more easily than others. The amount of milk produced after the birth of the first young is important in judging the quality of a milking animal. A good male to father milk animals will be one which had a good milking mother.

When breeding animals for meat the rate at which they gain weight is an important characteristic to consider. Animals used for work should be strong, with good feet and legs and need to be docile. The parents need to show these characteristics.

The ability of the female to feed and wean her young is also important. This is an essential factor to consider when breeding pigs.

If you can keep a record of your animals you will know which ones were good for milk, meat, producing young and staying healthy. You can also keep a record of the parents.
If you keep records it will help you to judge which animals to keep for breeding and which males to castrate.
You must remember never to breed between father and daughter. This will increase the chances of any bad characteristics of the male being passed on to the young. This is called inbreeding.

Annex 5: Record keeping

Why do we keep records?

As a PAHCW you may well know a lot about the animals kept in your community. However keeping the information in your memory is not enough, we can all easily forget something. You must be able to supply your veterinary and livestock officers with written papers (records) about the animals in your community.

You will need to keep records to tell you when animals were vaccinated, dipped, given any medicine or castrated. You need to know how many animals were treated, what was the problem and how often do some diseases occur in your community.

If you want to breed your livestock to improve them then you will need to keep records of the father and mother of every animal. You need to know how good they and their young were (see Annex 4).

Records

Papers for records may be given to you by the veterinarian, livestock or agricultural officer for your area. They will want you to fill in the records with information about livestock in your community.

If you do not have these record papers you can make your own. You only need a pencil and paper. You should remember that you and your community will gain the most from record keeping.

Types of records

These are examples of the types of records you need in your work:

· Recording your work in the community

It is important that you keep a register (note book) to write a record of your work:

Date

Name of owner

Age & Type of animal

Problem

Action taken

· Vaccination record

You can keep this as a separate register or as a separate record in your notebook.

Date

Vaccination

Type of animal

Number of animals

Name of owner

· Records for the veterinary officer

You may have to give your veterinary officer records of what you have been doing in your work.

Name of District or Community ..............................................................
Name of PAHCW ................................................... Date .......................
Work done by PAHCW from ............................... to ..............................
1. Number of sick animals seen .............................................................
Details .......................................................................................................
....................................................................................................................
2. Drugs used:
....................................................................................................................
....................................................................................................................
....................................................................................................................
3. Number of animals vaccinated and vaccines used: ........................
....................................................................................................................
....................................................................................................................
4. Number and type of animals dying ....................................................
....................................................................................................................
....................................................................................................................
5. Other problems seen by PAHCW:
....................................................................................................................
....................................................................................................................
....................................................................................................................
6. Other activities and comments: .........................................................
....................................................................................................................
....................................................................................................................
Signature of PAHCW ..............................................................................
Supervisor's comments ...........................................................................
....................................................................................................................

· Records for the animal owner

You should encourage everyone who keeps animals to keep a record of their animals. Encourage them to use numbers, names or ear tags to identify their animals. If the owner keeps records of his animals he will be able to identify the good animals and breed from them and similarly he can identify the poor animals and get rid of them.

This is an example of a record for a male animal:

name/number of male .............................

date of birth .........................

name/number of father ............................

name/number of mother ..........................

Mating

1. Name/number of female

date and result

2. Name/number of female

date and result

3. Name/number of female

date and result

Example of record for a female animal:

Name/number of female .............................

date of birth .........................

name/number of father ...............................

name/number of mother .............................

First mating

name/number of male

date of mating

number born

number weaned

Second mating

name/number of male

date of mating

number born

number weaned

Annex 6: Weights and measures

Throughout the world different terms are used for measuring weight, length and volume. The following tables give the terms which you may need to know in order to work out how much medicine to give animals.

Metric weights and measures

Weight:

1 tonne

= 1,000 kilogram

1 kilogram (kg)

= 1,000 grams (gm)

1 gram (gm)

= 1.000 milligrams (mg)

Volume:

1 litre (L) = 1,000 millilitres (ml)

Length:

1 metre (m) = 100 centimetres (cm)

Imperial weights and measures

Weight:

1 stone = 14 pounds (lbs)

1 pound (lb) = 16 ounces (oz)

Volume:

1 pint (pt) = 20 fluid ounces

1 quart (qt) = 2 pints

1 gallon = 4 quarts

Length:

1 foot (ft) = 12 inches (ins)

3 feet (ft) = 1 yard (yd)

Imperial and metric equivalents

Imperial

Metric

2.2 pounds

1 kilogram

1 ounce

31.1 grams

1 pint

473.2 ml

1 quart

946.4 ml

1 gallon

3,785 ml

1 inch

2.54 cm

1 foot

30.5 cm

1 yard

91 cm

Useful household measurements

1 teaspoon =

5 m = 60 drops = 3 gm of flour = 5 gm of salt

1 tablespoon =

15 ml = 3 teaspoons = 15 gm of salt

1 wineglass =

60 ml = 4 tablespoons

1 cup =

250 ml

Land

1 hectare = 2.471 acres = 10,000 square metres

Annex 7: Explanation of terms and index

abattoir: a slaughterhouse where animals are killed for meat.
abdomen: the belly.
abomasum: the fourth stomach of ruminants, the true stomach.
abortion: the end of pregnancy before the young can survive.
abscess: a painful lump full of pus.
absorb: to take in.
acute disease (Unit 6): a disease which quickly develops and from which the animal can die or recover.
African horse sickness (Unit 48): an infectious disease of horses which can kill.
afterbirth: the flesh which attached the young inside the womb and is expelled from the womb after the mother gives birth.
alfalfa: a green legume plant grown for animal feed.
anthrax: an infectious disease of cattle and sheep which can be passed to humans. It can kill animals and humans.
antibiotic: a medicine which can kill germs.
antiseptic: preventing infection by killing germs.
anus: the opening at the end of the gut through" which the faeces pass.
appetite: the desire for feed and drink.
ark (pig ark): a wooden shelter for pigs.
arteries: the vessels or tubes which take blood away from the heart.
artificial insemination (Unit 17): semen taken from the male is introduced into the uterus of the female.
arsenic: a poison used for killing pests.
ash: the powder formed when something is burnt.

barley: a grasslike plant grown for grain.
bedding: straw or other material for animals to lie on. Can be used as a feed (see Unit 23).
belch: to bring up gas from the stomach through the mouth.
bile: greenish fluid produced by the liver.
bladder: bag in which the urine collects.
blister (Unit 25): bubble of skin in which water collects.
bloat (Unit 8): swollen with gas.
blood smear: small amount of blood from an animal, dried onto a glass slide, which is sent to a laboratory for checking.
blood vessels: tubes throughout the body which contain the blood.
blowflies (Unit 12): flies that lay their eggs on meat and wounds.
boar: a male pig.
body brush: a brush used to remove dirt and dust from the animal's coat.
bolus: a ball or tablet of medicine.
botfly (bots)(Unit 41): fly maggots which live in the stomach of equines.
bran: husks of cereal grain seperated from the flour.
breast girth (Unit 47): a band around the chest of a horse to prevent the saddle or harness slipping off.
breed: a group of animals with the same characteristics.
breeding: the controlled reproduction of animals.
bridle (Unit 47): harness on the horses head used to control the horse's movement.
brisket: breast muscles of the cow, buffalo, horse.
browse: to eat plants and leaves.
Burdizzo (Unit 14): instrument for castrating cattle, sheep, goats and buffalo.

caecal worm: parasitic roundworm in the gut of chickens.
calving (Unit 19): when a cow gives birth.
cake (Unit 23): material left after the oil has been removed from sesame seeds, groundnuts, linseed, etc.
canine: like a dog, the sharp pointed teeth.
capillaries: very fine blood vessels.
carbohydrate: food such as sugar and starch which contains a lot of energy.
carbon dioxide: colourless gas formed in breathing.
carcass: the dead body of an animal.
carnivores: animals which eat meat.
cartilage (gristle): material found in the joints.
cast: to throw down, to pull an animal off its feet.
castration (Unit 14): removal of the testicles.
cattle plague (Unit 25): infectious disease of cattle (rinderpest).
caustic soda: a chemical which burns.
cauterise: to treat a wound by burning with an hot iron.
cells: smallest piece of substance from which all plants and animals are formed.
centigrade (°C): scale of temperature, water freezes at 0°C and boils at 100°C.
characteristic: a distinguishing feature or quality.
chronic disease (Unit 6): a long-lasting, lowly progressing disease.
circulatory system (Unit 3): the heart, blood vessels and blood.
claw of hoof: hard part at the end of the hoof.
climate: the temperature and weather conditions.
cloaca: the cavity into which the gut and the reproductive organs open in birds.
clover: a green legume plant with three-lobed leaves used for animal feed.
coat: the hair, wool or fur of an animal.
coccidia: small parasites of the gut.
coccidiostat: medicine to slow down the development of coccidia.
colic: severe cramping pains of the stomach.
colostrum: the first milk produced after birth
comb: fleshy crest on the head of chicken
community (Unit 1): any group of people living together.
concentrate feed (Unit 23): an animal feed rich in nutrients, especially protein and energy.
constipation (Unit 68): the faeces are hard and difficult to pass.
contract: to shorten.
cornea: the outer covering of the eyeball.
cough: expel air quickly and noisily from the lungs.
creep: low area for feeding which piglets can enter but the sow cannot.
creosote: liquid used to preserve wood or as a disinfectant.
crush: metal or wooden crate in which animals, usually cattle, can be held or controlled.
cud: partially digested food brought up from the rumen and chewed.
curdle: to make milk seperate into solids and fluids.
curry comb: a metal comb used to clean a body brush when grooming horses.
cyst: a bag which contains fluid, diseased material or tapeworm parasites.

dagging (crutching)(Unit 12): removal or dirty, wet wool from around the tail and hind legs of sheep.
defecate: to pass faeces.
deficiency disease: a disease resulting from the lack of an essential nutrient.
deformity: part of the body which is badly shaped.
dehorn (Unit 13): to remove the horns from an animal.
diamond skin disease (Unit 29): erysipelas, a disease of pigs and humans.
diarrhoea: watery faeces which are frequently passed.
digestive system (Unit 3): the gut and associated organs.
disease: an illness or sickness.
disbudding (Unit 13): removal of the small horns from young animals.
discharge: an out flow of fluid or material, usually from the eye or ear.
disinfectant: a chemical used to kill germs.
dislocation: displacement of a bone at the joint from its normal position.
docking: cutting the tail short, especially in sheep.
draught: the act of pulling a load by an animal, as in a cart or plough.
drench: liquid medicine given by mouth to an animal.
droppings: the faeces of birds and small animals.
dung: the faeces of large animals.
dust bath: the act of covering the coat or feathers with dust.

ear tagging (Unit 36): marking the ears of an animal to identify it.
elastrator (Unit 14): instrument used to place rubber band around the base of the testicles in castrating small ruminants.
emasculator (Unit 44): instrument used to castrate horses and other equines.
embryo (Unit 3): the developing young animal inside the uterus.
energy: the capacity for activity or function.
environment (Unit 2): the conditions and surroundings in which people and animals live.
erosion: the wearing away of rocks and soil by the action of water and wind.
equine (Unit 5): relating to the horse, one of the horse family.
erysipelas (Unit 29): disease of pigs causing diamond-shaped patches on the skin.
expiration: the act of breathing out.
external parasite: parasite which lives on or in the skin, hair, wool or fur for all or part of its life, such as ticks, lice.

faeces: waste material left after digestion.
farrowing: name given to the act of giving birth in the pig.
fat: greasy or oily substance.
fetlock joint: the joint just above the hoof in equines.
fever: a very high body temperature caused by an infection.
first aid: treatment given to wounds or in an emergency.
flank: the side of the abdomen.
fleas: small external parasites found in the coat, bedding and housing of animals.
fleece: the wool of sheep.
flesh: the meat of the body.
flukes (Unit 15): flat, leaf-like parasites found in the liver or rumen.
foaling: the act of giving birth in the horse.
foot and mouth disease (Unit 25): infectious disease of cattle, causes blistering of mouth, feet and teats.
foot rot (Unit 11): disease of the underside of the hoof.
foreign body: any object not normally found in the body.
forceps: instrument in the form of a pair of pincers.
formalin: a chemical used as a preservative.
foster: to care for and rear the young of another.
foster mother: a female which feeds and cares for the young of another.
fracture: a broken bone.

gait (movement): the way in which a horse (or other animal) moves.
Galvayne groove (Unit 38): a groove in the corner front tooth of the horse, first appears at 10 years of age.
Gentian violet: a violet coloured chemical used to disinfect wounds.
germs: the very small organisms which cause diseases.
girth (Unit 47): the band passed around the belly of the horse to hold the saddle in place.
girth gall (Unit 47): painful area of skin caused by a badly fitted girth.
gizzard: thick-walled part of the gut in birds.
gizzard worm: parasitic worm living in the wall of the gizzard.
grain: the seeds of grass-like plants, e.g. barley, wheat.
grit: small hard pieces of stone or earth.
groom: to brush and clean the coat of an animal.

halter: rope or leather headgear used on horses or other animals to handle them.
hand rear: to feed a young, orphaned animal with milk.
harness: the arrangement of straps fitted on a horse to attach it to a cart or other object for it to pull.
hay: sun-dried grasses used as animal feed.
heat (oestrus): when the female will accept the male.
heifer: young cow which has not given birth.
herbivores: animals which eat plants.
herd: large group of animals.
hereditary: characteristics passed from parents to young.
heredity: the passing of characteristics from parent to young.
hobble: to tie the legs of a horse or other animal to prevent it walking away.
hock: the large joint of the hind leg.
horse collar (Unit 47): leather or wood and leather collar fitted around the neck of a horse used to pull a cart.
hormones: chemicals formed by glands in the body which control the activity of organs.
hoof, hooves: the horny covering at the end of the foot in animals.
hoof pick: tool used to clean out the hoof.
host: an animal which is infected with parasites.
hydatid cyst: cysts formed in the organs of ruminants and peole by the young of a tapeworm from dogs.

identification: recognition, e.g. permanent name, number, tag or mark on animal.
immunity: an animal's cellular and chemical (antibody) protection against germs or cancer. Immunity can be produced by vaccination.
infection: disease caused by a germ.
injection: to put a fluid into the body using a needle and syringe.
inspiration (Unit 3): breathing in.
internal parasite: parasite which lives inside the body for all or part of its life, such as roundworms, lungworms and coccidia.
intramammary: into the udder.
intramuscular: into the muscle.
intravenous: into the vein.
iodine: a brownish chemical used to clean and disinfect wounds.
isolate: to seperate from others, e.g. sick animals from healthy ones.

joint: the point where two bones are joined.
juices: liquid which occurs naturally in plants or animals.

kaolin: a fine white clay used to treat diarrhoea.
kidding (Unit 20): the name for giving birth in the goat.
kidneys: the organs of the body which form urine.

lambing (Unit 20): name used for giving birth in sheep.
lame: unable to walk properly.
laxative: substance which stimulates defecation.
legume: certain plant species which fix (produce) nitrogen in the soil, i.e. clover, lucerne
leguminous: relating to any flowering plant which fixes nitrogen
lesion: injury to or abnormal tissue or loss of function of a body part. Cut skin, TB tubercles in the lungs and mastitis are all lesions.
lice (louse): small external parasite found amongst the hairs of the coat.
ligaments: tough fibres which connect bones together at the joints.
limb: a leg or wing.
litter: a group of animals born at the one birth.
livestock: domesticated animals.
loose box (Unit 45): stable in which a horse is able to turn around in and is not tethered.
lucerne (Unit 8): alfalfa.
lungworm: parasitic worm which lives in the lungs.
lymph gland or node: small gland which helps to protect the body against disease.
lympho-reticular system (Unit 3): tissues throughout the body which help protect from germs through immunity.

maggot: the young stage of a fly.
maize: grass-like plant grown for its yellow grains.
mange: infection of the skin caused by mites.
mare: female horse.
marshy: badly drained, wet and muddy land.
mastitis (Unit 22): infection of the udder.
mating: the joining of the male and female to breed, mounting.
meal: ground grain.
mercury: silver coloured liquid used in thermometers.
microscope: magnifying instrument used to see objects too small to be seen with the naked eye.
milk teeth: the first or temporary teeth.
milk spot: white spots on the liver caused by infection with roundworms.
minerals: naturally occurring chemical substances.
mites: small external parasites found in the skin, coat and ears.
mounting: mating.
mucous: slimy material formed to protect parts of the body e.g. the nostrils.
mud fever: infection of the legs of equines kept in wet and dirty conditions.
mulch: rotting leaves and used to protect the roots of a plant and to fertilise the soil.
muscles: the meat of the body. Contraction of muscles makes the body move.
musty: smelling or tasting old.
muzzle: sensitive area around the nose and mouth.

navel cord: cord which attached the young to the placenta in the womb.
newborn: recently or just born animal.
nerves: fibres which carries messages between the brain and the rest of the body.
nervous system: the brain, spinal cord and nerves.
nicotine: poisonous substance found in tobacco.
nose holder tongs: instrument used to control cattle and buffalo.
nostril: one of the openings in the nose.
notching (Unit 36): making cuts or marks in the ear of the animal to identify it.
nozzle: a spout from which fluid can be discharged.
nutrient (Unit 23): a food substance such as carbohydrate, fat, vitamins.

oesophagus (gullet): the tube between the mouth and the stomach.
oestrus (Unit 17): when the female will accept the male and mate.
ointment: creamy or oily substance used on the skin, eyes or wounds.
omasum: one of the four stomachs of ruminants, also called the book.
omnivores: animals which eat plants and meat.
organ: part of the body which carries out a particular task.
orphan (Unit 21): young animal whose mother has died.
ova: the egg formed by the ovary.
ovary: the organ in the female which produces the egg or ova.
overgrazing: when pasture grasses have provided feed for too many animals for too long and becomes damaged or destroyed by loss of grass and soil.
overstocking: keeping too many animals in an area.
oxygen: colourless gas taken into the body during breathing.

PAHCW: primary animal health care worker.
panting: breathing rapidly through the open mouth.
paraffin: kerosene, oil used to burn for light or heat.
paralysed: unable to move, having no control over the limbs.
parasite: animal or plant which lives in or on another.
parturition: giving birth.
pastern bone: the part of the leg of a horse (or equine) between the hoof and the fetlock.
pasture: area of grassland used for grazing.
pasture rotation: system of resting pasture for a time between grazing with animals.
pawing: scraping or hitting the ground with the foot.
pedal bone: one of the bones of the foot in equines.
pen: small fenced area for animals
pig ark: wooden or metal shelter in a field for pigs.
pig board: large wooden board used in moving or handling pigs.
piglet: young pig.
pigsty: house and pen for pigs.
pig swill: boiled feed for pigs.
plague: infectious disease, usually spreading rapidly infecting many animals.
pliers: strong tool used for cutting.
ploughing: cutting or turning over the soil.
poultry: domesticated birds.
post mortem: after death, examination to discover the cause of death.
pregnancy: the development of the young inside the mother.
pregnant: having developing young in the womb.
protein: an essential nutrient, important for good growth.
pus: white, grey or yellow fluid from an infected wound or abscess.

rabid: mad, having rabies.
rabies (Unit 77): infectious disease causing madness, fear of water and death.
race: fenced passageway, too narrow for an animal to turn around in.
rain scald (Unit 42): skin problem of horses caused by wet and dirty conditions.
rasp: to scrape or rub with a metal file.
ration (Unit 23): amount and composition of animal feed.
record: written information.
rectum: the last part of the gut which opens at the anus.
red worms: red parasitic worms of the gut and its blood vessels in equines.
reproductive system (Unit 3): the organs involved in reproduction and the production of young.
respiratory system: the lungs and windpipe, organs involved in breathing.
restrain (Unit 10): to control or prevent an animal from moving.
reticulum: one of the four stomachs of the ruminant also known as the honeycomb.
ribs: the bones of the chest.
rinderpest (Unit 25): infectious disease of cattle, cattle plague.
ringworm: infection causing round light coloured spots on the skin of animals and humans.
ruminant (Unit 7): animal which has a rumen and chews the cud.
ruminate (Unit 4): to chew the cud.
rumination: act of chewing the cud.
roughage: bulky feed which is only partly digestible.
roundworms: small worms, many of which are parasites.

saddlery: the saddles and harnessm for horses.
saddle sores: painful areas of skin and wounds on the back caused by badly fitted saddles.
saliva: fluid produced in the mouth.
scalpel: a surgical instrument for cutting.
scaley: covered with scales.
scapula: the shoulder blade.
schistosomes (Unit 15): parasites found in the blood and urine.
screwworm: maggots of the screwworm fly which infect wounds forming deep holes; can cause death.
scrotum: the bag of skin containing the testicles.
semen: fluid produced by the testicles and other glands.
shear: to cut the wool off an animal.
shoeing: to fix metal to the bottom of the hoof to protect it.
silage: grass and plants cut green and stored in an airtight container for feed.
silent heat (Unit 17): animal in oestrus but signs of heat are not seen.
silo (Unit 23): airtight pit in which silage is made and stored.
skin scraping: scraping from an infected area of skin used to check for cause of problem.
skull: the bones of the head.
slaughterhouse: place where animals are killed for meat, abattoir.
sneeze: to expel air from the nose suddenly and with no control.
sodium bicarbonate: white substance used to treat bloat and neonatal diarrhoea, e.g. baking powder.
sole: the underside of the foot.
sorghum: grass grown for grain, hay and to make silage.
sow: female pig.
sperm: produced in the testicle and present in semen, fertilises the ova in the female.
spinal cord: main nerve supply running from the brain and protected in the backbone.
spleen: organ found near the stomach and involved in protecting the body from infection.
spongy: like a sponge, soft and with many holes or cavities.
sputum: saliva and mucous.
star gazing: sheep about to give birth holds head up and back as if watching the stars, a sign of the beginning of parturition in sheep.
stallion: a male horse (or equine).
sterlisation: killing all germs using heat or disinfectants.
straw: dried stems and leaves of grain plants.
strychnine: a very poisonous drug, used to kill stray dogs.
subcutaneous: under the skin.
subnormal: lower than normal.
suckle: to drink milk from the udder.
swill: boiled animal feed, especially for pigs.

tack, tackle (Unit 47): the saddles, harness and bridles used with horses.
tapeworm: long, flat parasitic worm found in the gut.
teat: the opening in the udder through which the milk can pass.
teat catheter: instrument used to remove milk and fluid from the udder with mastitis.
teeth clipping (Unit 26): cutting off the sharp teeth of the young animal (pig) to prevent damage to the mother's teats during suckling.
temporary teeth: the first or milk teeth.
tether: rope used to tie up an animal.
testicles: the male reproductive organs found outside the scrotum.
thermometer: glass instrument used to measure temperature.
thrush (Unit 39): infection of the foot of equines.
tick: blood sucking external parasite.
tick-borne disease: disease spread by tick bites.
tourniquet: rope or cloth tied around a blood vessel to stop bleeding.
triplets (Unit 20): three young born from one birth.
trocar and cannula: instruments used to pierce the rumen and relieve bloat.
troughs: wooden or metal containers for feed or water.
tubercles: small hard lumps in the lungs and other organs of an animal infected with tuberculosis.
tuberculin: sterilised liquid produced from the germ which causes tuberculosis and used to test animals for tuberculosis.
tuberculosis (TB): infectious disease of the lungs and other organs which can be passed to humans from animals.
twins: two young born at the same time.
twitch: tool used on the muzzle to control equines.
tympany: bloat, excess gas in the rumen.

udder: milk producing gland of the female.
urinary system (Unit 3): the kidneys and bladder which get rid of waste water and other substances as urine.
urine: fluid formed in the kidneys and containing waste substances and water.
uterus (Unit 3): the womb, the organ of the female in which the young develop.

vaccination: putting a non-disease producing germ into the body to stimulate an animal's immunity.
vaccine: a fluid which can make the body develop protection (immunity) against a certain disease.
vagina: the part of the female into which the womb opens and through which urine passes to the outside of the body.
vegetation: plants, e.g. grasses, trees, shrubs.
veins: blood vessels which carry blood back to the heart.
ventilation: letting fresh air into an area or house.
vitamin: substance occurring naturally and essential to the normal working of the body.
vulva: where the vagina opens to the outside.

wattles: fleshy areas around the beak and neck of chickens.
wallowing: to roll about in mud or water.
warfarin: poison which stops the blood from clotting.
water bag: the fluid filled bag in which the young develops and which comes out of the vulva at the beginning of birth.
wean: to stop drinking milk and eat solid food.
weaned: when the young animal no longer drinks milk.
whipworm: whip-like worm which is a parasite in the gut.
windpipe: tube which connects the lungs with the nostrils, the trachea.
womb: the uterus, the organ of the female in which the young develop.
wool: soft curly hair of sheep and other animals.
wound: a cut in the skin.
wrist: where the hand joins the arm.

Large animals:	Camel, horse, large cattle and buffalo.
Medium animals:	Small cattle, donkeys, mules, llamas and large pigs.
Small animals:	Sheep, goats, alpacas, small pigs, young cattle, young buffalo and young camels.
Very small animals:	Young sheep, goats and piglets.
Birds:	Chickens, ducks and turkeys.

......................................................................................................................
Vaccine.................................................	Rinderpest .................................
Type (of animal).....................................	Cattle.........................................
Age of animal........................................	6 months old...............................
Frequency (No. of times to vaccinate).....	Once..........................................
Route (how to give vaccine)....................	Subcutaneous injection ...............

Date	Name of owner	Age & Type of animal	Problem	Action taken

Date	Vaccination	Type of animal	Number of animals	Name of owner

name/number of male .............................	date of birth .........................
name/number of father ............................
name/number of mother ..........................
Mating
1. Name/number of female	date and result
2. Name/number of female	date and result
3. Name/number of female	date and result

Weight:	1 tonne	= 1,000 kilogram
	1 kilogram (kg)	= 1,000 grams (gm)
	1 gram (gm)	= 1.000 milligrams (mg)
Volume:	1 litre (L) = 1,000 millilitres (ml)
Length:	1 metre (m) = 100 centimetres (cm)

Weight:	1 stone = 14 pounds (lbs)
	1 pound (lb) = 16 ounces (oz)
Volume:	1 pint (pt) = 20 fluid ounces
	1 quart (qt) = 2 pints
	1 gallon = 4 quarts
Length:	1 foot (ft) = 12 inches (ins)
	3 feet (ft) = 1 yard (yd)

Imperial	Metric
2.2 pounds	1 kilogram
1 ounce	31.1 grams
1 pint	473.2 ml
1 quart	946.4 ml
1 gallon	3,785 ml
1 inch	2.54 cm
1 foot	30.5 cm
1 yard	91 cm

1 teaspoon =	5 m = 60 drops = 3 gm of flour = 5 gm of salt
1 tablespoon =	15 ml = 3 teaspoons = 15 gm of salt
1 wineglass =	60 ml = 4 tablespoons
1 cup =	250 ml