5. EXTENSION METHODOLOGIES

5.1 Selection of Extension Agents
5.2 Specific Techniques of Extension

5.1 Selection of Extension Agents

Criteria for selection of extension agents vary from country to country. In many countries a university-level education is required for extension work.

In others, "promotores", "moniteurs", or "link workers" are trained by extension agents to work on a nearly daily basis with producers. These types of extension personnel often have little education, perhaps a level only slightly above the level of the average population.

It is widely assumed that the higher the level of education of extension personnel the better for the service. However, university-trained personnel are scarce in many countries and in great demand, and their qualifications command higher salaries in occupations other than the government extension service. Moreover, university-trained personnel may consider it a demotion to be assigned to a job which requires frequent travel to rural areas. After receiving a university education, the general expectation of graduates is an office job which does not require physical hardships of the type experienced by extension personnel.

Different target groups require different types of extension agents. The problems of the large commercial producers predominantly centre around market development for new aquaculture products. Such commercial operations, usually privately owned by wealthy individuals, need well educated and technically trained extension agents. However, good agents, with a college degree and often experience and special training in the USA or Japan, are most frequently hired directly by the private sector. This puts a drain on the work and service of the public sector. Subsistence operators, on the other hand, require a local person familiar with local conditions and farming practices. In these cases the link worker, promotore, or moniteur system works best.

In the survey, eight respondents indicated that a university degree was necessary to be selected as an extension agent (Table 5), namely Cameroon, Zaïre, Jordan, Philippines, Thailand, Mexico, Panama, and Peru. The remaining programmes required some type of post-primary educational level, such as vocational training. One respondent mentioned the need for the agent to be a community leader.

The heart of any extension programme is personal contact between farmer and agent. Yet selection of extension agents focuses primarily on academic education levels. Little regard is given to communication and social skills of individuals selected. Only three respondents (Rwanda, Zimbabwe, and Thailand) mentioned any type of extension agent training, yet extension agents need constant and quality training beyond their academic education. It is presumed that specialized training is generally not available for aquaculture extension agents. An agent who is confident in his or her abilities and knowledge will not be afraid to meet with farmers and deal with their questions and problems. Extension personnel who have not been properly trained may justly feel inadequate and insecure in their knowledge, and shy away from contact with farmers. Similarly, inadequately trained agents may cause a great deal of damage by giving wrong recommendations to farmers. A poorly trained extension agent may come to be regarded as a nuisance by the farmers, or a pest.

Table 5. Requirements Used to Select Extension Agents

Region/ Country	Level of Education	Technical Training	Sex	Specialist (Aquaculture)	Generalist (Agriculture)
AFRICA
Cameroon	H.S./Univ.	-	M/F	X	-
Rwanda	Vocational	3 months	M/F	X	-
Tanzania	Vocational	-	-	X	-
Zaïre	B.S.	-	-	X	-
Zimbabwe	Vocational	On-the-job	-	-	X
ASIA
Jordan	B.S.	-	-	X	X
Philippines	B.S.	-	-	X	-
Thailand	B.A./B.S.	8-10 wks	-	-	X
LATIN AMERICA
Colombia	-	-	-	-	-
Ecuador	-	-	M	X	-
Guatemala	Literate	-	-	X	X
Mexico	H.S./Univ.	-	M/F	X	X
Panama	University	-	-	X	X
Peru	University	-	M/F	X	X
Uruguay	-	-	-	X	-

(*) Only two countries required particular language skills; Rwanda (French) and Guatemala (local language).

In systems where link workers, promotores, or moniteurs are used, the problem of providing incentives to reside in rural areas is removed when they are selected from rural areas targeted by a programme. They already live in the area, and are known by neighbours and relatives. The obvious advantage of this practice, if applied properly, is that there are few problems with acceptance in the community, language, and culture. On the other hand, as these individuals have a low educational level, and little or no experience in aquaculture, considerable effort must be expended in training and supervision.

In these cases extension personnel work primarily with link workers and not directly with producers. For example, the Fisherwomen Extension Service of the Department of Fisheries in Tamil Nadu developed a programme to train link workers to serve as liaisons between fisherwomen and government officers and institutions (Drewes, 1980 and 1985). Specific functions of these link workers were to (a) mobilize fisherwomen for constructive group action, (b) improve their social and economic conditions, (c) create understanding of needs for change in socio-cultural attitudes among men and women, (d) encourage women to utilize services of governments and other institutions, and (e) stimulate government institutions to respond to objectives and needs of target groups. Women trainees were selected based on their literacy, marital status (married below the age of 40), acceptance by all women in the village, willingness to participate in residential training courses, awareness that training did not guarantee employment, and willingness and interest to work with groups of women.

Twenty-three women participated in the 10-week course. Participants were trained in the basics of group dynamics. Field visits were organized and the residential training was followed by two months of on-the-job training. Link workers assisted individual women in determining their most urgent needs, identified means of meeting these needs, and registered cooperative societies of fisherwomen. The Department of Fisheries provided continuous close support through the Fisherwomen Extension Service. As a result of this project, more than 250 women from five villages received loans of 200-500 Indian Rupees each at 4X interest. Some cooperatives started savings deposits and others joined educational programmes.

Another type of link worker extension system is the U.S. Peace Corps/CARE aquaculture project in Guatemala. Initiated in 1982, it has worked in 21 municipalities in 9 departments in eastern and northern Guatemala, in rural areas characterized by scarce economic resources. The principal objective of the project was to supplement the family diet with fish, and a secondary objective was to generate income.

Fish ponds were constructed by the father of the family, but daily management was carried out by women and children. Women, with sole responsibility for the diet of the family, enjoyed having an additional source of protein close at hand. Approximately 500-600 ponds were constructed, of average size 100-200 m². Volunteers trained local counterparts who then translated during educational sessions. Team work was emphasized, which involved a division of labour along traditional lines prevalent in the communities.

The most successful field extension personnel are individuals who speak the local language, understand local agriculture, farming, and culture, and who win the confidence of the rural people they are sent to serve. The most effective extension agents are those who are able to relate and communicate with farm families in the rural community. Field level extension personnel should be as similar as possible to the rural people they will serve in language, culture, and religion. However, only Rwanda and Guatemala, of the survey respondents, have any language requirements (see Table 5). In Rwanda extension agents are required to speak French, whereas in Guatemala they must be fluent in the local language. But unless extension personnel are better trained they will not be respected, or have anything better to teach. If they always remain in their home areas, any programme may become dominated by members of a social and economic elite of the area (Axinn, 1988).

Traditionally, extension workers have been predominantly male (Engle, 1987b). In recent years it has become clear that much of the work of aquaculture is done by women. Consequently the work of male extension agents, who arrive in a community and invariably train and transmit technology to men, is misplaced, as women are involved in the day-to-day management of fish ponds. Managers of credit programmes have also discovered that failure to involve women in the loan negotiation process in Asian countries (where women manage household finances) can have disastrous results in terms of loan default rates. The Asian Development Bank discovered that by including women in the loan negotiation process the rate of loan defaults was dramatically reduced (Hourihan, 1986).

In general the survey respondents indicated no preference for one sex or the other for extension agent positions (see Table 5). Ecuador was the only respondent who indicated that only males would qualify for extension positions.

Racial or cultural considerations are also important at times. If an extension programme is designed to work with persons in a low economic order and with limited resources, there may be different racial and cultural backgrounds. Such differences make it difficult for an extension agent of different race or culture to develop the trust and confidence necessary for an effective farmer relationship. Often typical patterns of oppression of minority races or cultures augment these problems. Yet these minority races or cultures will have few, if any, representatives educated at the level required by most extension services. In these circumstances the link worker system functions well to bridge possible differences in education and culture.

Some extension systems are based on hiring personnel trained specifically in aquaculture, while others use agriculture generalists as extension agents. Others use a combination of the two. Specialized aquaculture personnel are often scarce, particularly in countries which are developing new aquaculture industries. But the greatest need for well-trained personnel is in countries with incipient industries where there is little information and no strong base of experience among producers.

In systems which rely on specially-trained aquaculture specialists, the tendency has been to develop totally separate aquaculture extension services. Agriculture generalists can respond to a large number of different agricultural problems with one trip in one vehicle. Special services require several trips and vehicles to the same area, using fuel and duplicating equipment in areas where these and vehicle maintenance are costly and difficult to arrange. The most adequate solution may be some combination of the two, namely specialized aquaculturists who work with agriculture generalists for training, and responding to particular problems. Thus their collective training and experience is spread over a wider area.

The majority of respondents (71%) required specialists in aquaculture for extension positions (see Table 5). This emphasis was not specific to any one region. At least one respondent in each region used general agriculturists as aquaculture extension agents.

Extension programmes designed to implement production strategies based on integration of animal husbandry and agronomy with fish culture require extension agents experienced with various crops, livestock, and even forestry enterprises. Integrated agriculture-aquaculture technology requires extension agents to be agriculture generalists with perhaps intensive short-term technical training in aspects most critical to the success of the local system (Gutierrez, 1986; Pretto, 1985).

Some countries use extension agents trained as agronomists, and others hire primarily biologists. The perspectives adopted by people with these respective technical backgrounds are, however, quite different. Agronomists are trained in soil science and agricultural production. They are taught principles of fertilization, liming, herbicide and pesticide treatment, but generally do not receive training in basic biology of aquatic organisms. As many aquatic organisms rely on food from natural sources, training in these areas is very useful.

Extensionists trained as biologists, on the other hand, tend to focus on biological cycles, food webs, and more esoteric biological issues than production of food. This can be a problem when dealing with farmers who are primarily concerned with food production, and not interested in relationships between different food niches or preserving native species.

Aquaculture is sometimes confused with ecology and can be a hobby of the educated elite. It may be a fad for some who, with little knowledge or practical experience, seek to inflict this on subsistence producers. Some host country nationals return from overseas with a post-graduate degree (M.S. or Ph.D.) obtained through further education and research. Their programme of study probably included little practical production experience. Without such practical fish culture skills, they are invariably poorly prepared to guide an extension programme, and provide pragmatic and useful recommendations.

5.2 Specific Techniques of Extension

Extension techniques have been developed in many countries over the last 50 years. Recognized extension techniques include training and visit, demonstration farm projects, producers' meetings, educational materials, and use of mass media.

Extension activities must be multi-media to direct the process of technological change and development effectively. However, not all techniques are appropriate for all countries and situations. Tables 6-9 present information from the survey on respondents' perceptions of the most appropriate extension techniques for cooperatives, private producers, commercial producers, and for subsistence producers.

Table 6. Extension Techniques Appropriate for Cooperatives

Region/ Country	Training & Visit	Demonstration Farms	Meetings	Education Material	Mass Media	Other(*)
AFRICA
Cameroon	X	X	X	X	X	-
Rwanda	X	X	X	X	X	X
Tanzania	X	-	-	X	X	-
Zaïre	X	X	X	X	X	-
Zimbabwe	X	X	X	X	X	-
Subtotal	5	4	4	5	4	1
ASIA
Jordan	X	-	-	X	X	-
Philippines	X	X	X	X	X	-
Thailand	X	X	X	X	X	-
Subtotal	3	2	2	3	3	-
LATIN AMERICA
Colombia	X	X	-	-	X	-
Ecuador	X	X	-	-	X	-
Guatemala	-	X	-	-	-	-
Mexico	X	X	-	X	X	-
Panama	X	X	X	X	X	-
Peru	X	X	-	X	-	-
Uruguay	X	X	-	X	-	-
Subtotal	6	7	1	4	4	-
TOTAL	14	13	7	12	11	1

(*) Rwanda: Farmer-to-farmer

Table 7. Extension Techniques Appropriate for Private Producers

Region/ Country	Training & Visit	Demonstration Farms	Meetings	Education Material	Mass Media	Other (*)
AFRICA
Cameroon	X	X	X	X	X	-
Rwanda	X	X	X	X	-	X
Tanzania	X	-	X	-	X	-
Zaïre	X	X	X	X	-	-
Zimbabwe	-	-	-	-	-	-
Subtotal	4	3	4	3	2	1
ASIA
Jordan	X	X	-	X	X	-
Philippines	X	X	-	X	-	-
Thailand	X	X	X	X	X	-
Subtotal	3	3	1	3	2	-
LATIN AMERICA
Colombia	X	X	-	-	X	-
Ecuador	X	X	X	-	-	-
Guatemala	X	X	-	-	-	-
Mexico	-	X	X	X	X	-
Panama	-	X	X	X	-	-
Peru	X	X	X	X	X	-
Uruguay	X	-	-	-	X	-
Subtotal	5	6	4	3	4	-
TOTAL	12	12	9	9	8	1

(*) Rwanda: Farmer-to-farmer

Table 8. Extension Techniques Appropriate for Commercial Producers

Region/ Country	Training & Visit	Demonstration Farms	Meetings	Education Material	Mass Media
AFRICA
Cameroon	X	-	X	-	-
Rwanda		X	X	X	X
Tanzania	X	-	X	-	X
Zaïre	-	-	-	-	-
Zimbabwe	-	-	-	-	-
Subtotal	2	1	3	1	2
ASIA
Jordan	X	X		X	-
Philippines	X	X	X	X	X
Thailand	-	-	X	X	X
Subtotal	2	2	2	3	2
LATIN AMERICA
Colombia	X	X	-	-	X
Ecuador	-	X	X	-	X
Guatemala	X	X	-	-	-
Mexico	-	X	X	X	-
Panama	-	X	-	X	X
Peru	-	-	X	-	X
Uruguay	X	X	-	-	-
Subtotal	3	6	3	2	4
TOTAL	7	9	8	6	8

Table 9. Extension Techniques Appropriate for Subsistence Producers

Region/ Country	Training & Visit	Demonstration Farms	Meetings	Education Material	Mass Media	Other(*)
AFRICA
Cameroon	X	X	X	X	X	-
Rwanda	X	X	X	X	-	-
Tanzania	X	X	-	-	-	-
Zaïre	X	X	X	X	-	-
Zimbabwe	X	X	X	X	-	-
Subtotal	5	5	4	4	1	-
ASIA
Jordan	X	X	X	X	-	-
Philippines	X	X	-	X	X	X
Thailand	X	X	X	X	X	X
Subtotal	3	3	2	3	2	2
LATIN AMERICA
Colombia	X	X	-	-	X	-
Ecuador	X	X	X	-	X	-
Guatemala	X	X	X	X	X	X
Mexico	X	X	-	-	-	-
Panama	X	X	X	X	X	-
Peru	X	X	X	X	-	-
Uruguay	X	-	-	-	X	-
Subtotal	7	6	4	3	5	1
TOTAL	15	14	10	10	8	1

(*) Interchange of information between farmers, neighbours, and communities

The training and visit system is one of the most widely utilized of all extension techniques. It consists of training sessions for producers to introduce specific technologies and techniques which are then followed by farm visits to observe their implementation and outcome. The training session can take a number of forms, including producers' meetings, conferences, workshops, and method demonstrations. This has been one of the important models of extension methodologies used. The training and visit system was widely accepted by survey respondents as an appropriate extension technique for cooperatives, private producers, and subsistence producers.

Demonstration farm projects have been successfully used by many countries. They incorporate two main attributes, namely they recognize the importance of demonstrated success of any new technique and its subsequent adoption by farmers, and the importance of farmer-to-farmer communication. A technology, which has been successfully developed by researchers to the point where there is good potential for success on the farm, is selected for implementation on a cooperator's farm. The cooperator is selected on his or her willingness to devote space and time to the activity, and with resources to meet particular requirements of the new technology. Implementation of a new technology on a farm in an area with favourable conditions demonstrates to the local producers the viability and potential benefits to be derived from it. Demonstration farms were mentioned by most respondents for all types of producers, and were regarded as one of the most useful extension methodologies.

Producers' meetings are important techniques used by extensionists. They provide a mechanism to transfer information to a group of producers at one time. They also provide a mechanism for mutual support and interchange of ideas among producers.

For work with cooperatives, producers' meetings were often selected by respondents from Africa (Cameroon, Rwanda, Zaïre, and Zimbabwe) and Asia (Philippines and Thailand), but in Latin America only Panama used meetings with cooperatives (see Table 6). Educational materials and mass media were widely used for work with cooperatives. Rwanda also takes advantage of farmer-to-farmer communications for extension work with cooperatives.

Meetings were more often selected by respondents from Latin America for private producers than for cooperatives (see Table 7). Both educational materials and mass media were recommended, as well as farmer-to-farmer interactions in Rwanda. Guatemala also indicated that the extension programme makes considerable use of exchanging information at farmer, neighbour, and community levels.

Demonstration farms and meetings were seen as most important for working with commercial producers (see Table 8). However, African respondents were less enthusiastic about demonstration farms for commercial producers, and they were used only in Rwanda.

Educational materials are essential to add an additional element to extension efforts. Newsletters, bulletins, fact sheets, and pamphlets can be passed or mailed to producers without farm visits, and can be used to reinforce information presented at producers' meetings or through farm visits. In societies with a high rate of illiteracy, educational materials must be designed carefully with illustrations which convey information without relying extensively on text.

Availability of simple written manuals and audiovisuals are important in any extension programme (Pretto, 1985). A series of manuals on the following subjects is recommended: fish pond construction, inorganic and organic fertilization of ponds, stocking and culture of fish species in ponds, fish pond management, economic aspects of fish culture, reproduction of freshwater organisms for their culture in ponds, fish health, prevention and cure of parasites and diseases, and preparation of aquaculture products. These manuals should be based completely on experiences within the country.

Mass media techniques can be used effectively in almost all countries. In countries with high rates of illiteracy, radio announcements can be extremely effective, and television is becoming an increasingly important means of communication.

For subsistence producers respondents indicated Intense efforts in all categories (see Table 9). This is perhaps implicit recognition of the difficulties working with subsistence farmers, and the need to devote many resources and many different techniques to the process.