4.1 Survey of Marine Bio-Resources
4.2 Legislation for Management and Protection of Aquatic Resources
4.3 Research on Genetics and Biodiversity
4.4 Disease Prevention and Health Management
4.5 Marine Habitat Improvement
4.6 Reorganization of the Fishery Sector
The seas of China cover a huge area from the Bohai Sea, Yellow Sea, East China Sea until the South China Sea. There is no main warm or cold current passing through these areas and there is no strong upwelling. Therefore, the distribution and configuration of existing marine organisms are rather specialized and limited. In comparison with the majority of the world fishing grounds, Chinese marine resources are characterized by a relatively greater number of species and smaller biomass.
Since the 1980s and particularly in the 1990s, research on marine resources was intensified. On the basis of results, measures for the management of marine resources were taken into three directions: (i) implementation of a survey of existing marine bio-resources; (ii) formulation of the legislation necessary for managing and protecting natural aquatic resources; and (iii) intensification of research on genetics and biodiversity of these resources
In addition, measures were taken in three other fields: (i) disease prevention and health management for farmed species; (ii) marine habitat improvement; and (iii) reorganization of the fishery sector..
Since 1950, the Chinese government became increasingly interested in supporting research on marine fishery resources and several reports were published until the 1960s. This provided important data for genetic resources management and biodiversity protection. In 1979, the State Council approved the Report of the National Workshop on Agricultural Resources Investigations and Agricultural Zoning. Accordingly, in 1980, the National Bureau of Aquatic Products nominated a group of experts to carry out a detailed survey of existing fishery resources and their regional organization.
Survey results for the Guangdong Province may be summarized as follows:
This survey of the marine fishery resources provided valuable data for policy making, design of research projects and future investments. It was also proved that it contributed significantly to the stable development of sea farming and sea ranching in China.
Table 32. Main legislation issued by the Chinese government
Bylaws and regulations |
Issued by |
Year of issue |
Temporary Bylaw on Reproduction and Protection of Fishery
Resources (Draft) |
Ministry of Fisheries |
1957 |
Trial Measures on Reproduction and Protection of Penaeus
chinensis in the Bohai Zone |
Drawn up by Ministry of Fisheries; Approved/issued by State
Council |
1962 |
Direction on Active Protection and Rational Utilization of
Wild Animal Resources |
State Council |
1962 |
Survey on Marine Fishery Resources |
Organized by Ministry of Agriculture &
Forestry |
1971 |
Summary on Prevention and Treatment of Pollution in Bohai
Sea and Yellow Sea |
Report approved by State Council |
1977 |
Bylaw on Reproduction and Protection of Fishery
Resources |
State Council |
1979 |
Notification on Standards of Water quality for the
Fishery Industry |
State Council Leading Team for Environmental Protection,
State Committee of Construction, State Committee of Planning, General Bureau of
Fisheries |
1979 |
Regulations on the Reproduction and Protection of Fishery
Resources in the Bohai Area |
General Bureau of Fisheries |
1981 |
Law on Environmental Protection of Sea and Ocean in
China |
Adopted by 5th Standing Committee of National Peoples
Congress |
1982 |
Levy and its Use for the Propagation and Protection of
Fishery Resources |
Drawn up by Ministry of Agriculture, Ministry of Finance,
and National Bureau of Materials. Approved by State Council. |
1988 |
Law on Protection of Wild Animals |
President Yang Shangkun |
1988 |
Administrative Measures for Natural Protection Zones of
Aquatic Plants and Animals |
Ministry of Agriculture |
1997 |
The regulations and bylaws listed above clearly show that the protection of natural resources, including fishery resources, and the conservation of their biodiversity have been part of Chinas basic policy for development.
On the basis of this legislation, fishery authorities drew up and issued a series of measures for the protection of spawning grounds and of areas used by larvae and juveniles. This played an important role for ensuring the sustainable development of the fishery industry.
To ensure the protection of natural resources, it was also necessary to have a basic knowledge of existing indigenous species, of exotic species and of their valuable varieties. At present, Laminaria, Porphyra, flounder, Japanese perch and hard-shell clam have been well studied, which should help protecting these natural resources and providing excellent varieties for mariculture. Research was also carried out on genetic improvement such as polyploid breeding and on karyotype determination for economically important mollusc and fish species (Tables 33 and 34).
In the 1960s, several new varieties of Laminaria japonica were bred, with new characteristics such as higher level of iodine and better growth rate. This enabled China to eliminate a serious iodine shortage and to develop the seaweed processing industry. Since the 1990s, polyploid varieties of abalone, oyster and scallop were produced. Such research benefited mariculture and increased seafood production.
Table 33. Karyotypes of selected marine molluscs
(st type calculated in double-arm)
ORDER |
Family |
Species |
2n |
Karyotype formula |
NF |
ARCHAEOGASTROPODA |
Haliotidae |
Haliotis discus hannai |
36 |
22m+14sm |
72 |
NEOGASTROPODA
|
Buccinidae
|
Neptunea arthritica cumingii |
60 |
30m+22sm+8st |
112 |
Buccinum pemphigum |
30 |
16m+10sm+4st |
56 |
||
Plicifusus scissuratus |
34 |
20m+10sm+4st |
64 |
||
ARCOIDA
|
Arcidae
|
Scapharca sp. |
38 |
12m+20sm+6st |
76* |
S. subcrenata |
38 |
14m+22sm+2st |
76* |
||
Tegillarca granosa |
38 |
28m+10sm |
76 |
||
MYTILOIDA
|
Mytilidae
|
Mytilus edulis |
28 |
12m+10sm+6st |
50 |
M. coruscus |
28 |
12m+10sm+6st |
50 |
||
Pectinidae |
Chlamys farreri |
38 |
6m+10sm+22st |
54 |
|
Ostreidae
|
Crassostrea talienwhanensis |
20 |
20m |
40 |
|
Crassostrea sp. |
20 |
12m+8sm |
40 |
||
PTERIOIDA
|
Pteriidae
|
Pinctada martensii |
28 |
14m+6sm+6st+2t |
48 |
P. maxima |
28 |
16m+4sm+6st+2t |
48 |
||
P. margaritifera |
28 |
14m+6sm+8st |
48 |
||
P. nigra |
28 |
4m+4st+20t |
32 |
||
P. radiata |
28 |
4m+4st+20t |
32 |
||
P. chemnitzi |
22 |
8m+2sm+2st+10t |
32 |
||
VENEROIDA
|
Solenidae
|
Solen strictus |
38 |
30m+6sm+2t |
74 |
Sinonovacula constricta |
38 |
26m+6sm+2st+4t |
76 |
||
Veneridae
|
Meretrix meretrix |
38 |
18m+20sm |
76 |
|
Ruditapes philippinarum |
38 |
28m+10sm |
76 |
ORDER |
Family |
Species |
2n |
Karyotype formula |
NF |
ANGUILLIFORMES
|
Congridae
|
Conger myriaster
|
38 |
8m+10st+20t |
56 |
|
10m+10sm+18t |
58 |
|||
MUGILIFORMES
|
Mugilidae
|
Mugil cephalus |
48 |
48t |
48 |
Liza haematocheila |
48 |
48t |
48 |
||
Lateolabrax japonicus |
48 |
48t |
48 |
||
Serranidae
|
Epinephelus sexfasciatus |
48 |
2sm+46t |
50 |
|
E. awoara |
48 |
48t |
48 |
||
E. fario |
48 |
14m,sm+34st,t |
62 |
||
Sciaenidae
|
Nibea albiflora |
48 |
48t |
48 |
|
Sciaenops ocellatus |
48 |
48t |
48 |
||
PERCIFORMES
|
|
Pagrosomus major |
48 |
2st+46t |
48 |
Sparidae
|
Sparus macrocephalus |
48 |
4m+4sm+2st+38t 6m+4sm+38t |
56 58 |
|
S. latus |
48 |
4m+2sm+4st+38t |
54 |
||
Pomadasyidae
|
Hapalogenys mucronatus |
48 |
2m+8sm+14st+24t |
58 |
|
H. nitens |
48 |
2m+8sm+2st+36t |
58 |
||
Stichaeidae
|
Ernogrammus hexagrammus |
48 |
48t |
48 |
|
Thunnus alalunga |
48 |
2m+4sm+42t |
54 |
||
Thunnidae
|
T. albacora |
48 |
2m+2sm+2st+42t |
52 |
|
Katsuwonus pelamis |
48 |
48t |
48 |
||
Gobiidae
|
Tridentiger trigonocephalus |
44 |
10m+28sm+2st+4t |
82 |
|
Chaenogobius annularis |
44 |
20m+22sm+2t |
86 |
||
Glossgobius fasciatopunctatus |
46 |
16sm+6st+24t |
62 |
||
Synechogobius hasta |
44 |
2m+42st,t |
46 |
||
Periophthalmidae
|
Boleophthalmus pectinirostris |
46 |
2st+44t |
46 |
|
Sebastes schlegeli |
48 |
2m+46t |
50 |
||
Scorpaenidae
|
S. hubbsi |
48 |
3m+2st+43t (fem) |
51 |
|
S. nigricans |
48 |
2m+46t |
50 |
||
Sebatiscus marmoratus |
48 |
2m+46t |
50 |
||
SCORPAENIFORMES
|
Hexagrammidae
|
Agrammus agrammus |
48 |
8m+32sm+8st (fem) |
88 |
|
|
7m+33sm+8st (male) |
88 |
||
Hexagrammos otakii |
48 |
6m+16sm+20st+6t |
70 |
||
Platycephalidae |
Platycephalus indicus |
48 |
2m+8sm+2st+36t |
58 |
|
Paralichthyidae
|
Paralichthys olivaceus |
48 |
48t |
48 |
|
Pseudorhombus cinnamomeus |
48 |
48t |
48 |
||
Pleuronichthys cornutus |
48 |
12m+2sm+34t |
62 |
||
PLEURONECTIFORMES
|
|
Pseudopleuronectes yokohamae |
48 |
48t |
48 |
Pleuronectidae
|
Kareius bicoloratus |
48 |
48t |
48 |
|
Microstomus achne |
48 |
48t |
48 |
||
TETRAODONTIFORMES
|
Aluteridae |
Navodon septentrinalis |
40 |
40t |
40 |
Tetraodontidae |
Fugu rubripes |
44 |
20m,sm+24st,t |
64 |
Since the 1980s, the spread of viral diseases of penaeid shrimp resulted in major losses of production world-wide. As this affected fishery sustainable development, interested authorities, researchers and investors concentrated their efforts on finding a solution to the problem.
In China, production of farmed penaeid shrimp suddenly declined from over 200 000 mt in 1992 to 80 000 mt in 1993. Even though important funds were invested in research, shrimp production never reached its highest historical record again. Almost all other farmed species such as marine fish, scallop, oyster and seaweed were also affected by diseases, at various intensity levels. Financial losses exceeded one milliard RMB annually. These diseases were diagnosed as being caused by a wide variety of pathogens, ranging from bacteria to viruses, from fungi to parasites.
These disasters occurred for three main reasons:
Before 1992, there was no effective measures to protect farm stocks from diseases. But since the huge losses of farmed penaeid shrimp in 1993, various prophylactic and therapeutic measures were taken to protect farmed species in the long term.
These measures, which exerted a profound influence on the sustainability of sea farming and sea ranching development in China, were as follows:
All these actions contributed effectively to control shrimp epidemics and diseases of other marine species. In general, epidemics prevention in aquaculture and healthy management in sea farming were considered to be essential for the sustainable development of sea farming and ranching.
In the 1980s, artificial reefs were built in China. Due to financial constraints, the project was stopped after five years (Section 3.7). Existing habitat improvements gave good results for the ranching of sea cucumber (Stichopus japonicus), Japanese scallop (Patinopecten yesoensis) and abalone (Haliotis discus hannai), as well as for the protection of mangroves.
The main measures included (i) establishing protected zones; (ii) Improving natural habitats of economically important species; (iii) stocking seed in these natural habitats for resource enhancement; and (iv) prohibiting cutting and damaging mangroves.
In 1999, the National Council approved five natural sea protection zones. Among them, the Natural Sea Protection Zone of Nanji Islands was placed on the United Nations list of the Network of Protection Zones of the Biosphere. In this zone, there were about 1 500 marine aquatic species (mainly, 421 molluscs and 178 macroalgae) to be properly protected. In addition to these national zones, provincial and municipal governments approved many small-scale protection zones for enhancing and protecting local indigenous species in particular.
Habitat improvement was done on a trial basis, combining environmental improvement with stocking of seed. In the Shandong Province, such an enhancement zone for sea cucumber was established, involving the introduction of stones or concrete structures at selected sites and the stocking of juveniles in these areas.
A penaeid shrimp (P. chinensis) enhancement project was carried out in the 1980s. A return rate as high as 8 to10 percent was reported for the Buhai Sea and the Xiangshan Bay (East China Sea). The project was stopped to prevent any risk of disease epidemics and for other reasons.
Protection of the mangrove forest became a priority world-wide, similarly to the protection of coral reefs. The Chinese government focused its attention on this subject also, following reports that of the 60 000 ha of natural mangroves which once flourished along the coastal line from the Fujian Province to the Hainan Province, only 10 000 ha subsisted. New regulations forbade mangrove cutting and reforestation was planned.
According to statistics, the labour force engaged in marine fishing steadily decreased from 1.19 million in 1997 to 1.18 million in 1998, an average annual rate of about 0.8 percent. On the contrary, the labour force engaged in sea farming regularly increased from 459 000 in 1997 to 488 000 in 1998, an average annual rate of 6.3 percent. It meant that a great part of the labour force engaged in marine fishing shifted to mariculture activities. During such period, fisheries authorities paid more attention to the reorganization of the fishery sector and to the redeployment of fishermen.
To support such reorganization, there were three possibilities: (i) developing offshore cage farming; (ii) establishing land based marine farms; and (iii) developing the fishery processing industry.
For example, research on offshore cages was listed as one of the national priority projects since the 1990s. In the Zhejiang Province, a special team was organized to study the introduction of offshore cages from other countries, such as the USA and Norway, and the manufacture of locally designed equipment. Similar activities took place in the Guangdong, Fujian, and Shandong Provinces.
In northern China, the difference between minimum and maximum sea water temperatures can be as high as 20 to 25 C and it is difficult to farm marine fish in the open sea. Fishermen, therefore, easily accepted to farm marine fish in land based facilities. Flounder and European turbot became popular fish for sea farming. In order to prevent water pollution from commercial-scale farms, advanced recirculation systems were adopted.
It is our believe that the shift from fishing to farming will be successful because sea farming and sea ranching are firmly established activities in Chinese fishing towns and villages. Regulations and policies also encourage entrepreneurs to invest in this prosperous industry.