There is no complete list of NWFP in Nigeria because most biotic species from which forest products are derived are not well documented. Moreover the diversity of biotic resources and their utilization among different ethnic groups made the assignment of plants to different loci along NWFP continuum in considerable disarray.
The classification of NWFP remain somewhat problematic because some plants fit in more than one category such as food, medicine, forage, alcohol, industrial and edible oil, spices and mat weaving (Elaeis guineensis, Afromomum melagueta and Xylopia aethiopica).
In the savannah ecozones of Nigeria, Etkin and Ross (1994) documented about 119 plants as foods out of the 374 medicinal plants they identified. Yet in a different study, Okafor et al (1994) identified 8 NWFP from the mangrove swamp, 19 traded products from the moist forest, 17 from the southern guinea savannah 12 in the Sudan savannah and 56 for the whole country.
The NWFP is classified into two broad groups: non-wood and non-timber products. The non-wood products are derived from faunal and floral sources but sub-divided into different user groups such as foods, medicine, toxins, dyes etc. The non-timber products are derived from shrubs and trees. According to Okafor et al (1994), the NWFP constitute materials not exclusively from the forests but including materials from natural ecosystems
Based on the current in-country literature review, the major biotic species from which forest foods are derived are composed of higher plants and wild animals (Adjanohoum et al, 1991;Okafor et al, 1994;and Osemeobo, 1998). These are:
· 42 Species of fruit trees and shrubs;
· species of vegetable plants;
· species of spices;
· species of mushrooms;
· species of seed bearing plants;
· 3 Species of oil producing plants ;
· 6 Species of drink producing plants.
The faunal species utilized for food are worms, frogs, insects ,snails, reptiles, mammals ,birds and fish. Okafor (1979) gave an account of 150 edible indigenous plant species of NWFP in the rain forest and 51 species of food and fodder trees and shrubs in the savannah (Okafor, 1980).
The non-timber products are also sub-divided into utilization groups such as household utensils, domestic-industrial energy, agricultural tools, traditional culture and medicinal uses. Davis and Richards (1991) reported that 69 species of plants from four distant ecozones: the mangrove swamp, the moist rainforest, the guinea savannah and Sudan savannah were utilised for various uses such as household energy, food, medicine, construction, arts and crafts and traditional culture.
There is a great deal of geographical disparity in the availability of NWFP within the ecozones. Unfortunately, virtually all the ecozones are experiencing a great deal of pressure from large scale agricultural projects to which government gives special encouragement and intensive logging practices.
Forestry in Nigeria is a state subject and it plays the role of resource generating organ. Since the states enunciate their management policies, the control of NWFP across state boundaries is poorly coordinated. However, the poor economic climate in the country since the 1980s generated pressure on the utilization and exploitation of NWFP. Thus the decline of NWFP is no longer conjectural but depressingly real in most parts of the country. The classification of NWFP is given in Figure 1.
The forest foods which are either eaten raw or processed form the major intake of proteins, vitamins, minerals fats and carbohydrates among the majority of rural communities in the country (Okafor et al, 1994). The forest foods are in the form of vegetables, fruits, nuts, tubers, seeds, oils, mushrooms, spices and drinks (alcoholic and non-alcoholic). The forest food producing species have varied phonological characteristics, however, the production of fruits are seasonal in most species. Some plants, like Elaeis guineensis, fruit throughout the year but with seasonal peak of fruiting occurring between March and May. While some plants are in off-season others are in on season thereby giving security to the rural communities that depend on them for sustenance.
Table 2 presents the major forest foods in Nigeria. Vegetables are derived from trees, shrubs, herbs and others. Among the various communities, most of the species are cultivated in gardens and farms for ease of access, control and management. Mushrooms are mainly seasonal and harvested from the wild. Mushrooms are both used for food and traditional medicine (Lentinus tuber-regium-for the treatment of dysentery Adjanohoun et al 1991).
Table 2: NWFPs - forest foods in Nigeria (floral resources)
Type of products |
Scientific names |
Habitat |
Utilization |
Present status | ||
Social |
Ecological | |||||
Foods -fruits |
1 |
Afromomu daniellii |
Forest |
Food |
R |
A |
2 |
Afromomu Sceptrum |
" |
" |
R |
A | |
3 |
Amblygonocarpus andongensis |
" |
" |
R |
A | |
4 |
Ananas comosus |
" |
" |
L |
A | |
5 |
Angyloalyx oligopyllus |
" |
" |
L |
A | |
6 |
Annona muricata |
" |
" |
L |
M | |
7 |
Annona reticulata |
" |
" |
L |
M | |
8 |
Annona senegalensis |
" |
" |
R |
M | |
9 |
Annona Sequamosa |
" |
" |
L |
M | |
10 |
Antrocaryon klaineanum |
" |
" |
L |
M | |
11 |
Antrocaryon Micarster |
" |
" |
L |
M | |
12 |
Balanites aegypitiaca |
Savannah |
Food |
R |
S | |
13 |
Blighia Sapida |
Forest |
" |
R |
S | |
14 |
Borassus aethiopum |
Savannah |
" |
N |
S | |
15 |
Buryrospermum parkii |
" |
" |
R |
S | |
16 |
Canarium Schweinfurthoii |
Forest |
Food |
L |
S | |
17 |
Carpolobia lutea |
Savannah |
" |
L |
S | |
18 |
Chrysophyllum albidum |
Forest |
Food |
R |
S | |
19 |
Cola Lepidota |
" |
" |
L |
S | |
20 |
Cola Mollenii |
" |
" |
L |
S | |
21 |
Cola Pachycarpa |
" |
" |
L |
S | |
22 |
Dacryodes edulis |
" |
" |
R |
S | |
23 |
Dennettia tripetala |
" |
" |
L |
S | |
24 |
Desplatsia dewevrei |
" |
" |
L |
S | |
25 |
Dialium guineense |
" |
" |
L |
S | |
26 |
Icacinta trihantha |
Forest |
Food |
L |
S | |
27 |
Landophia duleis |
" |
" |
L |
S | |
28 |
Mamea africana |
" |
" |
L |
S | |
29 |
Megaphrynium Macrostachyum |
Forest |
Sweetner |
R |
A | |
30 |
Myrianthus arboreus |
" |
Food |
R |
A | |
31 |
Napoleonaea vogellii |
" |
" |
R |
A | |
32 |
Phonix rectinata |
" |
" |
R |
A | |
33 |
Pseudospondias monocarpa |
" |
" |
R |
A | |
34 |
Selerocarya birrea |
" |
" |
R |
A | |
35 |
Spondias Mobin |
" |
" |
R |
A | |
36 |
Strophanthus hispidum |
" |
" |
R |
A | |
37 |
Tamarindus indica |
Savannah |
Food |
R |
M | |
38 |
Thaumatococcus danielli |
Forest |
" |
R |
M | |
39 |
Treculia africana |
N |
S | |||
40 |
Vitellaria paradoxa |
Savannah |
" |
N |
A | |
41 |
Vitex doniana |
" |
" |
N |
M | |
42 |
Zinziphus selerocaryabirrea |
Forest |
" |
L |
M | |
Vegetables |
1 |
Albizia zygia |
Forest |
Soup |
R |
S |
2 |
Bombax Costatum |
" |
R |
M | ||
3 |
Cochorus Olitorus |
" |
R |
M | ||
4 |
Cucumis melo |
" |
N |
S | ||
5 |
Ceiba pentandra |
" |
R |
M | ||
6 |
Gongronema latifolium |
" |
R |
S | ||
7 |
Ficus species |
savannah |
" |
R |
M | |
8 |
Gnetum africana |
forest |
" |
N |
S | |
9 |
Gnetum bucholziaum |
" |
" |
N |
S | |
10 |
Heinsta crinata |
" |
food |
R |
M | |
11 |
Kigelia africana |
" |
" |
L |
M | |
12 |
Lasianthera africana |
" |
" |
R |
M | |
13 |
Moringa oleifera |
" |
" |
R |
M | |
Vegetables |
14 |
Ocimum gratissimu |
Forest |
soup |
L |
M |
15 |
Pterocarpus aerenasious |
" |
" |
L |
M | |
16 |
Pterocarpus soyauxii |
" |
soup |
L |
M | |
17 |
Adansonia digitata |
" |
soup |
N |
M | |
18 |
Vernonia amygdalins |
savannah |
soup |
R |
M | |
19 |
Vitex doniana |
" |
" |
R |
M | |
20 |
Thonningia sanguinea |
forest |
" |
R |
M | |
Spices |
1 |
Afromomum melegueta |
" |
food/ medicine |
N |
E |
2 |
Afrostyrax lepidophyllus |
" |
" |
R |
M | |
3 |
Capsicum chinensi |
" |
" |
R |
M | |
4 |
Gongronema latifolium |
" |
" |
R |
M | |
5 |
Luffa cylindrica |
" |
" |
L |
S | |
6 |
Monodora brevipes |
forest |
" |
R |
M | |
7 |
Monodora myristica |
Forest |
" |
R |
M | |
8 |
Ocimum gratissimum |
forest |
" |
R |
M | |
9 |
Piper guineense |
" |
" |
N |
E | |
10 |
Tetrapluera tetraptera |
" |
" |
N |
S | |
11 |
Xylopia aethiopica |
Forest |
" |
N |
E | |
12 |
Zingiber officinale |
forest |
" |
N |
S | |
Edible mushrooms |
1 |
Agaricus campestis |
Forest |
Food |
R |
M |
2 |
Alueria aurantia |
" |
" |
R |
M | |
3 |
Cookenia sulsipes |
" |
" |
R |
M | |
4 |
Coprinus micaceus |
" |
" |
R |
M | |
5 |
Chlorophyllum molybditis |
Forest |
Food |
R |
S | |
6 |
Marasmius arborescens |
" |
" |
R |
M | |
7 |
Mycena prolifera |
" |
" |
L |
M | |
8 |
Phlebopus silvaticus |
" |
" |
L |
M | |
9 |
Pholiota dura |
" |
" |
R |
M | |
10 |
Lentitus tuberregium |
" |
" |
L |
M | |
11 |
Pleuronis squanosalus |
" |
' |
L |
A | |
12 |
Polyporus determoporus |
Forest |
Food |
L |
A | |
13 |
Pleurotus tuberosus |
" |
" |
L |
A | |
14 |
Ramaria Moelleriana |
" |
Food/ Medicine |
L |
M | |
15 |
Termitomyces globulus |
" |
" |
L |
M | |
16 |
Termitomyces Mammiformis |
" |
Food |
L |
A | |
17 |
Termitomyces microcarpus |
" |
" |
L |
A | |
18 |
Volvariella escalanta |
" |
" |
L |
A | |
Seeds |
1 |
Afzelia africana |
Savannah |
Soup |
N |
M |
2 |
Afzelia bipindesis |
Forest |
" |
R |
M | |
3 |
Brachyztegia eurycoma |
" |
" |
R |
M | |
4 |
Cola acuminata |
" |
Ceremonies & food |
N |
S | |
5 |
Garcinia Kola |
" |
" |
N |
S | |
6 |
Irvingia gabonensis |
" |
soup |
N |
E | |
7 |
Irvingia grondifolia |
" |
" |
N |
M | |
8 |
Mucuna sloanei |
" |
" |
R |
A | |
9 |
Parkia bicolor |
Savannah |
" |
R |
M | |
10 |
Parkia biglobosa |
Forest |
" |
N |
M | |
11 |
Pentadethra macroplyll |
Forest |
soup |
R |
A | |
12 |
Plukenetia conophorum |
" |
Food |
R |
A | |
13 |
Poga oleosa |
Forest/ Savannah |
snacks |
R |
A | |
14 |
Ricinodendon africanum |
Forest |
soup |
R |
A | |
Oil |
1 |
Baillonella toxisperma |
Forest |
Food |
L |
M |
2 |
Elaeis guineensis |
" |
" |
N |
M | |
3 |
Ricinus Communis |
" |
" |
L |
M | |
Alcoholic drinks |
1 |
Elaeis guineensis |
Forest/ Savannah |
Relaxation/ ceremonies |
N |
M |
2 |
Raphia Hookeri |
" |
" |
N |
M | |
3 |
Dialium guineense |
" |
" |
N |
M | |
4 |
Hibiscus sabdaniffa |
" |
" |
R |
A | |
5 |
Tamarindus indica |
" |
" |
R |
M | |
6 |
Treculis africana |
" |
" |
N |
M |
notes on present status of species:
(i) Social Status: N = Nation wide, R = Regional, L = Localized,
(ii) Ecological Status: A = Abundant, M = Moderate, S = Scarce, E = Endangered
Source - Various
Most trees and shrubs from which forest food are derived are harvested by women and children both from the wild and on farms (Parkia biglobosa, Chrysophyllum albidum). In palms (Elaeis guineensis and Raphia hookeri), the harvesting for wine and the fruits for oil are carried out by men who are professionals and harvested to generate income.
The harvesting of wine from the oil palm apply three methods viz.: felling of the tree, extraction of wine from apical leaves and extraction from flower base. On the other hand, species like Xylopia aethiopical and Piper guineense are usually harvested through pruning or pollarding of tree crowns. Some fruits are collected only when they fall on the forest floor as in Treculia africana, Irvingia grandifolia and Chrystophyllum albidum.
Processing of forest foods apply various methods peculiar to specific species. These are through:
· extraction of seeds from fruits and nuts - Irvingia grandifolia, Elaeis guineensis and Parkia biglobosa;
· pounding of nuts to release oil after boiling - Elaeis guineensis;
· cracking of nuts to release seeds - Elaeis guineesis;
· Boiling of seeds to ease the extraction of cotyledon- Treculia africana;
· Sun drying of leaves for storage- Adansonia digitata.
Okafor et al (1994) described the traditional methods of processing forest foods. Men, women and children are engaged in the processing of food. When the tasks are too tedious, the men take over the processing as in the processing of gin and oil from oil palm (Elaeis guineensis).
Two factors respectively affect the ecological and the biological status of species producing NWFP; these are unplanned land use practices and poor harvesting methods. Unplanned land use practices have led to (i) destruction of food bearing plants in land clearance for agricultural production and infastructural development, (ii) loss of habitats and treatment of fruit bearing plants as weeds in cultivated areas.
Poor harvesting of plants experienced in pollarding and pruning lead to; (i) reduction in fruiting patterns and in quantity of fruits, (ii) reduction of surface area of crowns and hence in photosynthesis thereby causing die-back in plants, and (iii) death of some plants harvested in the dry season due to water stress and bush burning (Osemeobo, 1988).
Virtually all fauna species, except those forbidden by taboos, folklores and found not suitable for consumption, are used for food (Osemeobo, 1994). The use of fauna resources for food varies among the various communities in accordance with the species occurring in their environment. The faunal products are in form of worms, insects, frogs, reptiles, molluscs, fish, mammals, birds and others. The list of fauna products used for food by various communities is presented in Table 3.
Table 3: NWFPs - Forest foods in Nigeria (faunal resources)
Types of products wildlife |
Scientific names |
Habitat |
Utilization |
Present status | ||
Social |
Ecological | |||||
(i) Worms for food |
1 |
Anaphe infracta |
Forest |
Food |
R |
E |
2 |
Anaphae venata |
" |
" |
R |
E | |
3 |
Anaphae molenyi |
" |
" |
R |
E | |
(ii) Land snails for food |
1 |
Archachatina marginata |
Forest |
Food |
N |
S |
2 |
Achatina achatina |
" |
" |
N |
S | |
3 |
Helix Pomatia |
" |
" |
R |
S | |
4 |
Limicolaria aurora |
" |
" |
R |
S | |
(iii) Food (Bushmeat) |
1 |
Atherurus africana |
Forest |
Food |
R |
S |
2 |
Thryanomys swinderianus |
Savannah |
" |
N |
S | |
3 |
Cricetomy gamianus |
" |
" |
N |
M | |
4 |
Xerus erythropus |
" |
" |
R |
M | |
5 |
Protexerus stangeri |
Savannah/Forest |
" |
N |
M | |
6 |
python sebae |
" |
" |
L |
E | |
7 |
Tragelapus spekei |
" |
" |
N |
M | |
8 |
Ceropithecus sclater |
" |
" |
N |
M | |
9 |
Mumida meleagris |
" |
" |
N |
M | |
10 |
Guttena edourdi |
" |
" |
N |
M |
Notes on Species Status
R = Regional, E = Endangered, N = National, S = Scarce, L = Localized, M = Medium
Source: various.
Wild animals used for food (bushmeat) are found in all the ecozones. Most of the animals are herbivores and are hunted more for food in the rainforest areas where livestock is beyond the reach of rural communities. In the forest ecosystems, the main wild animals hunted for food are rodents, birds, snails, frogs and reptiles. Men carry out hunting of wildlife while the collection of snails, worms and insects is the activity carried out by women.
Individuals in the households carry out hunting. Commercial hunters carry out group hunting. These groups migrate from one area to another. Reports have it that migrant hunters use dart guns, bows and arrows and modern weapons. Those who hunt for the household, use dane guns and traps. Commercial hunting has posed serious problems for wildlife management in the country (Osemeobo, 1990).
Either the hunters or the traders process bushmeat. This involves first the removal of external organs like fur, feathers, scales, and nails. Second, the internal organs are removed and third the carcass is smoked for the market. Smoked wildlife is preferred to unsmoked wildlife because it is believed to be tastier and can be better preserved Okafor et al (1994).
Hunting is a rural occupation within the common property regimes. Most of the ancient hunting grounds have been constituted into forest and game reserves thereby creating conflict in rural land use, such as poaching and agricultural production. In the rainforest areas, the disturbance of the vegetation for logging and farming increases the amount the food which supports the rodents thereby encouraging population growth to levels that upset the intensive hunting for food (Osemeobo, 1991).
Reports from the mangrove and fresh water swamp ecosystem indicate that caterpillars of a beetle are a delicacy and much hunted. The caterpillars thrive on dead trunks of Raphia and Oil Palms (both NTFP, of the flora category) and are harvested from them.
Other faunal resources of this ecological zone include, various kinds of fish and amphibians. A typical fish which lives in the muddy environment of the mangrove ecosystem is the mudskipper. Many species of fin fish are used as food and fertilizer. Various shapes of molluscs, for example the locally called periwinkles are also cherished as food in addition to oysters, shrimps and crabs. The bees in this ecosystem help to produce honey and wax. Some birds are hunted for food, feathers and recreation. Reptiles are hunted for their skins, food and recreation.
In the rain forest zone, mature grasshoppers and crickets are delicacies especially for children after roasting, as well as adult flying termites. Generally in this zone, a variety of mammals prevail as well as snails. Religious cultural beliefs forbid certain communities from eating some species which are cherished by others. Some such animals that are sectionally eaten in the forest zone include snails, monkeys, pythons and tortoises. Rodents, antelopes, duikers and monitor lizards appear to be universally eaten.