Over 90% of Nigerians in rural areas and about 40% in the urban areas depend partly or wholly on traditional medicine. In the use of NWFP, traditional medicine and traditional religion are inseparable as both rely on soil minerals, flora and fauna resources (Osemeobo, 1993).
Virtually all native species of plants are used for the treatment of one aliment or another. These involve traditional medical use for despoil, preventive, curative and magical purposes. For the traditional religion NWFP is used for divination, masquerades, shrine worship and musical instruments. Table 4 gives the major species used for both orthodox and traditional medicine. All plant forms and parts are used for traditional medicine. These include leaves, flowers, fruits, seeds, nuts, and tubers, roots, seedlings, latex and forest litter.
Table 4: NWFP used for modern and traditional medicine
S/no |
Name |
Habitat |
Utilisation |
Processing |
Present status |
1. |
Vitellaria Paradotum |
Savannah |
- Ointment extract from seed/fruits used in carrying surface wounds |
- extraction of ointment from seed |
- depleting due to deforestation - Ointment is market commodity |
2. |
Vernonia amydelia |
Forest Savannah |
-The liquid from leaves is a health drink for alleviating hypertension |
- removal of sand and dust from leaves - washing and squeezing of the leaves in bowl containing little water - serving of the water to obtain a filtrate, which is the health drink |
- It exists commonly in home gardens of rural and urban areas. - In compound farms - market commodity (both fresh and washed leaves). |
3. |
Garcinia Kola |
Forest |
Branch sticks also used as chew sticks to clear the mouth Seed eaten ordinarily to cure cough nagal - congestion - hepatitis - to alleviate hypertension - to improve mouth odour and cleanse the mouth as well |
- Depulping of fruit to extract seeds - removal of seed outer coat to chew the cotyledons |
- found mostly in rural areas near - homesteads and compound farms - breeding improvement - trials minimal - seeds are market commodity |
4. |
Tetrapeura tetraptera |
Forest derived Savannah |
Fruit pulp used for cooking for a nearly delivered woman for stomach cleansing. |
- cutting of the fruit pod in bits before immersing in cooking soup |
- depleting due to deforestation - breeding trials are - not signified in urban areas. |
5. |
Tetrapheura tetrayptera |
Forest |
Spicing fruit chewed to improve mouth odour |
|
- See mainly in their natural stands. - domestication has proved difficult to achieve beyond the seedling stage. |
6. |
Prosopis africana |
Savannah |
- bark used to treat fever |
- debarking using hatchets |
- depleting due to deforestation |
7. |
Khayan Senegalensis |
Savannah |
bark used to treat fever |
bark boiled for drinking |
depleting due to lack of regeneration |
8. |
Azadiraltha Indica |
Savannah |
Filtrate from leaves cooked in water solution is drunk for malaria fever. |
- leaves are plucked from the tree - They are immersed in pots containing water and boiled for few hours |
- Exotic species -Exists in the Savannah zone where it serves for . windbreaks . soil protection . shelterbelts - commonly observed in rural and urban settings. |
9. |
a. Xylopia sppb. Harungana madagascanesin |
Forest |
- fruit part added to soups which is drunk to cure fever. - Fruit ground and used to cane open wounds |
- Sometimes crushed before adding to soups or main meals - Drying before grinding |
- depleting due to deforestation - sighted mostly in rural areas |
10. |
Monodora mynsitica |
Forest |
- Fruit part is added to main meals to be eaten with a view to curing + stomach pain + pile + childbirth rigours |
- fruit can be roasted before use - shelling can be done to remove the back of the seed |
- depleting due to deforestation - sighted mostly in rural areas |
11. |
Pycnanthus angotensin |
- moist forest |
- mouth wash |
roast to remove bark |
depleting due to deforestation |
12. |
Enanthis chlorantha |
- moist forest |
- care for yellow fever |
roast seed |
depleting |
13. |
Alstonia boonei |
moist forest |
- used against malaria fever |
roast seed |
depleting |
14. |
Kigelia africana |
- Forest |
bark used in treating septic wounds |
- Peel of bark and grinding |
depleted considerably in natural forests |
15. |
Newbouldia laevis |
Forest |
Septic wounds |
peel bark and grind |
depleting due to deforestation |
16. |
Cassytha filiformis |
- Guinea Savannah |
- thread-like parasite training plat issued for treatment of diarrhoea in cattle |
squeezed for the cattle to eat |
depleting due to deforestation |
17. |
Acacia senegal |
- Sudan Savannah |
- gum aradoic used for treatment of diarrhoea |
- bores are made on the stem of the plant to extract excidate (gum) |
depleting due to - desertified conditions in the zone - poor tapping practices of the gum |
18. |
Nshillea latifolia |
Forest |
- used for malaria treatment |
moderate | |
19. |
Alstonia boonei |
forest |
- used for malaria treatment |
depleting | |
20. |
Cassia alata |
forest |
- used for treating skin disorders - ring worm |
abundant | |
21. |
Lonchrocapins cyanescens |
forest |
- used for treating skin disorders |
depleting | |
22. |
Irvingia gabonensis |
Forest - Derived and - Guinea savannah |
Bitter fruit pulp used as worm expellant |
abundant | |
23. |
Elaeis guineensis |
- Forest - Savannah |
- Oil from Kernel is administered as cure for various internal disorders - palm oil is applied on boils and external wounds |
moderate | |
23. |
Massularia acuminanta |
- Mangrove - Moist prat |
- chewing sticks |
- cutting of breakles and shaping into sticks of favourable size for chewing |
moderate |
24. |
Garaning manni |
Moist forest Freshwater swamp |
" |
" |
moderate |
25. |
Acacia nilotica |
depleting | |||
26. |
Tamasindus |
moderate | |||
27. |
Badanites acgyptiais |
Sudan Savannah |
depleting due to deforestation | ||
28. |
Anogeissus laocarpus |
" |
depleting | ||
29. |
Mitragyna thermis |
" |
depleting | ||
30 |
Acacia seyal |
" |
depleting | ||
31. |
Guiera senegalensis |
" |
depleting | ||
32. |
Momordica chlorantia |
" |
depleting | ||
33. |
Scherocarya birrea |
" |
depleting | ||
34. |
Azadirachta Indica |
Forest Savannah |
- Produces toxius (Pesticides) |
- extraction from the fruit |
exotic species ford both in rural and urban settings |
35. |
Macarnga Sp |
Forest Zone |
Medicinal |
||
36. |
Trenia guineensin |
" |
" |
Sources: Obot (1996): various
Within the same plants the use of parts vary in the treatment of aliment. This may be due to mystical beliefs but it is known that differences exist in the drug or nutrient contents of plants according to the species, types, age of plant the part of plant utilised, the time of the day and season of the plant (Osemeobo, 1992a). In a recent study in south-west Nigeria, a-ten hectare community herbal centre was found to contain (Osemeobo, 1998): (i) 85species of medicinal plants in 39 families, (ii) 16 key stone species on which the traditional health care of the Otun-Ekiti health care delivery was based and (iii) 80% of medicinal plants were herbs while 12% were shrubs and 8% were trees.
An earlier study carried out by a group of experts in western Nigeria in 1990 identified 297 medicinal species in 85 families and 85% of the plants were herbs (Adjanohoun et al,1991). The plants were used to treat diseases of the human systems, infectious parasitic childhood and miscellaneous diseases including medico-magical uses.
The harvesting practices of medicinal plants vary within and among species. Data from various communities gave the harvesting practices for medicinal plants as follows:
· leaves - apical, young, mature and dried,
· flowers - immature, matured and dried,
· fruits /seeds - immature, matured, and dried,
· stems - apical, young, matured, bark and latex,
· seedlings - leaves and whole plant utilization,
· roots - lateral, tap roots, ulbs and tubers.
The oil extraction got from Vitellaria paradoxum is used as ointment for both systemic and surface wound cure. The leaves of Vernonia amygdalina when washed and squeezed, brings out a vital liquid taken for alleviating hypertension. The seeds of Garcinia kola are chewed throughout the whole country as a cure to cough and nasal congestion. They are also used to alleviate hypertension. The species of Garcinia in addition yield cherished chewing sticks which help to improve mouth odour. Massularia accuminata is popular for its chewing sticks which serves both as tooth brush and tooth paste, as well as for treating mouth odours. Azadirachta indica, even though it is considered an exotic species in the country, is found commonly in rural and urban areas, and provides medicines and chemicals. The leaves after processing are used as a cure for malaria. The plants found in the various vegetation zones of Nigeria used for medicinal and cultural purposes are outlined in Figure 1. Description of ecological location, utilization, processing and present status are given in the table as well.
The plants used for modern medicine are presented in Table 4. According to Sofowora (1993) the active plant parts for modern medicine include seeds, rhizome, leaves, fruits, roots, stems, resins and the whole plants.
Most of the plants used in traditional medicine are fully established in modern medicine. The National Institute of Pharmaceutical Research and Development Abuja has worked on species known in traditional medicine for curing terminal aliments, such as sikkle cell anemia. A typical plant used for traditional medicine nation-wide is presented in Table 5.
Table 5: The utilization of the oil palm (elaeis guineensis) products for traditional medicine
Parts used |
Used in traditional medicine |
Uses in traditional culture/religion |
Apical Leaves |
* Cure of dysentery * Magical purposes for good luck and to overcome difficulties |
* Worship of Ogun the iron of god * Design of Masquerade (Igoh in Edo/Ondostates) * To ward-off evil spirits. |
Late(Wine) |
* Used in concoctions to treat convulsion in children. |
* Liberation in Cultural festivals and ceremonies. * Worship of Ogun the iron god |
Palm Kernel Oil |
* Treatment of rheumatism. * used to prepare concoctions to cure metal patients. * Treatment of poison |
* Design of masquerades |
Palm Oil |
* Cure of body rashes * Treatment of Poisons from concoctions * Treatment of mental problems |
* Worship of Ogun the iron god * To appease the gods |
Palm Kernel shells and Underdeveloped inflorescence |
* Soap made from them is used to cure skin disease. |
* To make fire for ritual |
Source Osemeobo 1999 ( in press)
Four major types of plant processing exist in traditional medical preparation. These are: (i) blending, squeezing, and grinding of fresh plants. (ii) indoor and outdoor drying of plants. (iii) boiling of plants to extract the drugs. (iv) powdering of plants so as to add the materials into food as in the treatment of epilepsy with the leaves of Uraria picta and Alternanthera repens.
The status of medicinal plants in natural environments vary from one ecozone to another. The species of medicinal plants which occur in the savannah areas are often destroyed by annual bush fires intensive grazing by livestock. Because a high proportion of herbs and seedlings are subjected to whole plant utilization, the medicinal plants are abused and misused; some are treated as weeds in farms and destroyed in large scale agricultural productions and logging operations.
A lot of faunal resources not accepted for food and those not socially accepted because of taboos are used for traditional medicine. Moreover, the animals hunted for food and also used for traditional medicine are presented in Table 6, while Table 7 gives a typical wild animal used for food and traditional medicine.
Table 7: Faunal resources used for food and medicine
S/no |
Name |
Habitat |
Utilisation |
Processing |
Present status |
1. |
Termites |
All vegetation |
- eaten ordinarily- eater with main meals |
- dewinged mechanically - fried in dry pots |
- destruction of termite pronds for austricth or farming has reduced the availability of this meat product. |
2. |
Antelope |
- Forest - Savannah |
- eaten ordinarily - eaten with main meals |
- roasting - cooking - frying |
- population grossly reduced partly due to harsh economic conditions. - deforestation |
3. |
Rodents |
- Forest - Savannah |
- eaten ordinarily - eaten with main meals |
- roasting - cooking - frying |
depleted due to hunting |
4. |
grasshoppers |
- Forest Zone - Savannah Zone |
- eaten ordinarily |
- roasting |
- occurrence reduced |
7. |
Periwinkles |
Freshwater swaning mangrove |
- eaten with main meals |
- shelling - cooking |
- Oil spillage pollution of the water bodies in the coastal areas has adversely affect the availability of these products. |
8. |
Crustaleaus |
- mangrove - Fresh water |
- eaten ordinarily - eaten in main meals |
- cooking - extraction |
depleting due to habitat destruction |
9. |
Molluscs & fishes |
mangrove Fresh water swamp |
- eaten ordinarily - eaten in main meals |
- extraction from shell and - cooking |
depleting due to oil pollution in the habitat |
10. |
Pungoline |
mangrove |
eaten as bush meat |
- de-skinning - cooking - roasting |
depleting due to deforestation |
11. |
Gazella rufirom |
Sudan Savannah |
Bushmeat |
Cooking |
Depleting |
12. |
Cephlophus Spp (duiker) Veranus nifofica (monitor lizard) Phacochoerus aethiopicus (warthog) Xerus spp (grand squirrel) pelecanus onocro |
Sudan Savannah and Guinea Savannah |
food |
roasting cooking |
Birds, include: Peleconus onocrotalus (pelican) Numida meleagris (guinea fowl) choriotis kori (bustard) Francholinus spp fishes like T.lepia tilapia Protoptemus annectens (Tungfish) melapterurus sp (cat fish) insects like grasshopper. |
13. |
Monkeys |
Forest |
eaten as meat ordinarily and in meals |
- roasting - cooking - spraying |
depleting due to deforestation |
14. |
Tortoise |
Forest/Savannah |
Medicine |
roasting cooking |
depleting |
15. |
Pakara |
Guinea Savannah |
food |
roasting |
depleting |
16. |
Oysters (dams) |
Mangrove forest |
food |
roasting cooking |
Shellfish in valves with fix firmly on roots of mangrove bees. |
17. |
Crabs |
Forest |
food |
roasting |
depleting |
18. |
Mudskipper |
Mangrove |
food |
roasting cooking |
Fishes living in muddy waters |
19. |
Edible caterpillar of Beetle |
Mangrove |
larvae eaten before it changes to adult |
roasting |
Becoming scarce due to destruction of raphia vegetation |
20. |
snakes |
fresh water swamp forest |
eaten as meat |
roasting cooking |
depleting |
21. |
Archachatina Forest species |
Swamp |
food/medicine |
cooking |
depleting |
Table 7: The utilization of the African giant land snail (Archachatina marginata) for traditional medicine
Parts of the body used |
Uses in traditional medicine |
Uses in traditional culture/region |
Fluid |
* Cure of headache * Prepared in concoction for curing new babies' sickness * Cure of malaria * Used for blood clotting during circumcision and to stop bleeding in a cut or wound. * Treatment of dysentery * Suppression of high blood pressure. * To cure eye problems * Cure of small -pox |
* Sacrific to idols of iron(ogun) idols of oracle (ifa) and thunder (sango) * Sacrifice during New yam festival |
Shell |
* Treatment of dysentery * Treatment of stomach-ache * Anti-rheumatic * Storage of magical charms and against body pains |
* Used for festival (ovosun in Ondo State). |
Meat |
* Used to prepare talisman for protection * Treatment of infertility in woman * Cure of convulsion in new babies * Treatment of bone fracture. * Cure of anaemic patient |
* To ward off evil spirits. * To appease the gods. |
Sources: Agbelusi and Ejidike (1990), Osemeobo (1992a).
The utilization of faunal products is clearly based on small part utilization-skins, claws, feathers, bones, faeces, scales, fur and others. Despite this however, some animals are specifically hunted for traditional medicine, particularly for protective, curative and magical powers.