Fodder and forage are used to support livestock -cattle, sheep, goats, donkey and camel - in the dry season. In the savannah zones, most trees and shrubs shed their leaves, the annual grasses die-off and the perennial grasses dry up and the vegetation is burnt thereby leaving the animals with little or nothing to eat. However, the plant parts such as new flush of leaves, flowers and fruits often produced in the dry season are rich in proteins, vitamins and minerals (NAERLS, 1992).
The list of fodder species is given in Table 8. Fodder is harvested in the natural environments through: (i) selective cutting of leafy parts, flowers and fruits of shrubs and trees. (ii)Pruning of shrubs and trees which are suitable for livestock. (iii) Pollarding of tree crowns. However, the harvesting of fodder from the natural forests is through common property utilization. The harvesting of some species such as Afzelia africana, Khaya senegalensis and Daniellia oliveri are often abused thereby causing reduction in the population of saplings and seedlings for natural regeneration (Osemeobo,1996).
Table 8: Fodder species in Nigeria
Types |
Scientific names |
Habitat |
Processing method |
Status | |
Trees/shrubs |
1 |
Acacia albida |
Savannah |
- |
M |
2 |
Acacia niotica |
" |
- |
M | |
3 |
Acacia raddiana |
" |
drying |
M | |
4 |
Acacia senegal |
" |
- |
M | |
5 |
Acacia tortilis |
" |
drying |
M | |
6 |
Adansonia digitata |
" |
- |
M | |
7 |
Afzelia africana |
" |
- |
S | |
8 |
Albizia Zysia |
Forest/Savannah |
- |
S | |
9 |
Anogeissus leiocarpus |
Savannah |
drying |
S | |
10 |
Anona Senegalensis |
" |
- |
S | |
11 |
Balanites aegyptiaca |
" |
- |
S | |
12 |
Borassus eathiopium |
" |
- |
S | |
13 |
Ceiba pentandra |
Forest/Savannah |
drying |
S | |
14 |
Danellia oliveri |
Savannah |
- |
M | |
15 |
Detarium Microcarpum |
" |
drying |
M | |
16 |
Diosyros Mespiliformis |
" |
" |
S | |
17 |
Ficus capensis |
" |
" |
M | |
18 |
Ficus polita |
Savannah |
" |
S | |
20 |
Isoberlina doka |
" |
- |
S | |
21 |
Khaya senegalensis |
" |
- |
M | |
22 |
Nauclea latifolia |
Savannah |
- |
M | |
23 |
Gardenia terifolia |
" |
drying |
S | |
24 |
Newbouldia laevis |
" |
drying |
M | |
25 |
Parkia biglobosa |
" |
- |
M | |
26 |
Prosopis africana |
" |
- |
M | |
27 |
Prosopis julifera |
" |
- |
M | |
28 |
Spondia mobin |
Forest |
- |
M | |
29 |
Strychnos innocua |
Savannah |
- |
M | |
30 |
Tamarindus indica |
" |
- |
M | |
31 |
Vitex doniana |
" |
- |
M | |
32 |
Uapaka togoensis |
" |
- |
M | |
Grasses |
1 |
Vetivera nigritana |
" |
drying |
M |
2 |
Pennisetum purpureum |
" |
" |
M | |
3 |
Endiochoa pyranidalis |
" |
" |
M | |
4 |
Bracharia spp |
" |
" |
S | |
5 |
Canchrus tremula |
" |
" |
S | |
6 |
Eragiostis tremula |
" |
" |
S | |
7 |
Pennisetum predicellatum |
" |
" |
S | |
8 |
Diectomis fastigiata |
" |
" |
M | |
9 |
Otenium elegans |
" |
" |
M | |
10 |
Audropogon gayanus |
" |
" |
S | |
11 |
Avistida congiflora |
" |
" |
S | |
12 |
Hyparrhenia rufa |
" |
" |
M | |
13 |
Imperata cylindrica |
" |
" |
S | |
14 |
Sporobulus spp |
" |
" |
M |
Notes on Species Status M = moderate, S = scarce
Sources: NAERLS 1992, Osemeobo 1996
Subsistence fodder production is being carried out in the savannah ecozones on farms and homestead gardens. Most of the cultivated species are exotic and they are often used as live fences in homes and in gardens (NAERLS,1992).
The traditional culture refers to community activities in the form of ceremonies and festivals which utilize NWFP. The common NWFP used to promote the traditional culture include:
· skins of antelopes, crocodiles, monitor lizard and photon for drums and other musical instruments;
· seeds of Cana indica, and Etanda gigas for musical purposes;
· kola for sacrifice and prayers - Cola accuminata, C. nitida and Garcinia kola;
· palm wine for traditional ceremonies, festivals and relaxation.
Natural Dyes - The common species from which dyes are derived from are presented in Table 9. Dyes are used for clothes, body decorations and for masquerades. In some cultures, all participants in cultural festivals must be decorated (Igho and Otu festivals in Otuo and Iruoke Edo state). Also in some other cases, the clothes worn by priests are also decorated.
Both leaves and bark of plants are used to extract dyes. In some plants, fruits and seeds are used to extract dyes -Pterocapus osun and Harungana madacascariensis. The women who cultivate the plants producing dyes are now planting them in gardens and around homes to avoid their extinction.
Toxins - Toxins are popular with inland fishermen. They are used as fish poison among small holders who catch for the family. Large scale deforestation practices is posing a serious threat to the in situ conservation of the plants in Table 9.
Gum/tanning - Gum production and tanning are derived from three main savannah species given in Table 9. However, in the rainforest areas, domestic gum is derived from Khaya grandifolia and is used for traditional medicine and other cultural uses.
Wrapping leaves - Wrapping leaves are used to preserve Cola nitida and C. accuminata. Others are used to store food items and to sell food items like moi-moi, eko, meat, akara etc. The list of wrapping leaves is in Table 9.
Mat Weaving - Table 10 presents major plant materials used for weaving for domestic and commercial purposes. Mat weaving is a major rural industry in the savannah area where mats commonly used to demarcate homesteads for privacy among family units.
Table 9: Sources of various NWFP, Nigeria
Types |
Scientific names |
Habitat |
Processing method |
Present status | ||
Social |
Ecological | |||||
Thatched materials |
1 |
Mytragina ciliata. |
Forest |
Drying |
R |
M |
2 |
Eremospath Wendlandiana |
" |
" |
R |
M | |
3 |
Isoberlina doka |
Savannah |
" |
R |
S | |
4 |
Imperata Cylindrica |
" |
" |
R |
M | |
5 |
Raphia regalis |
Forest |
" |
R |
S | |
6 |
Mytragina ledermannii |
" |
" |
R |
M | |
Mat weaving |
1 |
Megaphynium macrostachyum |
" |
R |
M | |
2 |
Thaumatococcus danielli |
Drying |
R |
S | ||
3 |
Sarcophrynium brachystachys |
" |
" |
R |
M | |
4 |
Pandanus candelabrum |
" |
" |
R |
M | |
5 |
Marantochloa euspidata |
" |
" |
R |
M | |
Gum |
1 |
Acacia nilotica |
Savannah |
Grading |
N |
M |
2 |
Acacia Senegal |
" |
" |
N |
M | |
3 |
Acacia seyal |
" |
" |
N |
M | |
4 |
Acacia tortilis |
" |
" |
N |
M | |
Thinning Leaves for food wrapping |
Acacia nilotica |
" |
" |
N |
M | |
1 |
Megaphrynium mahostchyum |
Forest |
Grading |
N |
M | |
2 |
Thaumatococius danieli |
Forest |
" |
N |
S | |
3 |
Sarcophrynium pionogonim |
" |
" |
N |
S | |
4 |
Mitragyna ciliata |
" |
" |
L |
S | |
5 |
Cola nitida |
" |
" |
L |
M | |
Natural Dyes |
1 |
Pterocarpus Soyauxii |
" |
Leaves |
R |
M |
2 |
Pterocarpus erinaceus |
" |
" |
R |
S | |
3 |
Baphia nitida |
" |
Bark |
R |
S | |
4 |
Rothmania whitfieldii |
" |
wood |
R |
S | |
5 |
Lawsonia inermis |
" |
leaves |
R |
S | |
6 |
Anonidium mannii |
" |
leaves |
L |
S | |
7 |
Bixa orellana |
" |
Root |
L |
S | |
8 |
Hurungana madacascariensis |
" |
leaves |
L |
S | |
9 |
Pterocarpus Osum |
" |
" |
L |
S | |
10 |
Cyanastrum cordifolium |
" |
" |
L |
S | |
11 |
Lonchocarpus cyanedeens |
" |
" |
L |
S | |
12 |
Rothmanis hispida |
Forest/ Savannah |
" |
L |
S | |
Toxins |
1 |
Adenia lobata |
Forest |
Fish poison |
L |
A |
2 |
Entandrophragma angdense |
" |
" |
" |
A | |
3 |
Albizia ferruginea |
" |
" |
L |
A | |
4 |
Cassia alata |
" |
" |
L |
A | |
5 |
Enythrophdoem ivorensis iwrensis |
" |
" |
L |
M | |
6 |
Omphalocapum elatum |
" |
" |
L |
M | |
7 |
Olax gambecola |
" |
" |
L |
S | |
8 |
Raurofia vomitoria |
" |
" |
L |
M | |
9 |
Strychnos aculata |
" |
" |
L |
M |
Notes on Species Status
(a) social status R = Regional, L = Locatized, N = National, M = Medium
(b) Ecological status S = Scarce, M = Medium, A = Abundant
Sources: Various
The woody but non-timber products play a central part in the socio- cultural and economic life of rural Nigerians. They are often used for household utensils, carvings agricultural tools, chewsticks and musical instruments. The main product is fuelwood.
In terms of volume of wood content, chewsticks are the most expensive wood in Nigerian forests. The widely used plants for chewsticks are given in Table 10. These species are intensively harvested in the rainforests zones of Edo, Ondo, Oyo, Ekiti and Osun states. The common species used as chewsticks and medicine include the roots of:
· Vernonia amygdalins, Securinega virosa - for gaining appetite;
· Citropis articulata, Alafia barteri - for rheumatic pains;
· Fagara tessmannii, Fagara macrophylla - for sickle cell anemia and malaria;
· Xylopia aethiopica Aristolochia ringens - for stomach disorders.
These species improve the health of the teeth and prevent snake bites.
Household utensils include baskets, trays, mortar and pestles, stools etc. Major species producing the items are in Table 10. Other household utensils are constructed from rattans -Ancistrophyllum, Eremospatha and Onchoealanus. Other NWFP used for carving and agricultural tools, music and arts are in Table10.
From NWFP, many objects used in rural households are derived. Depending on the scale of production of these objects, they find their way into the rural economy starting with displays in village markets. The objects range from carved woody parts of species from which the leaves, fruits, nuts, flowers, and bark are also useful to man. Some species are reported to yield as many as ten objects per species.
Table 10: NWFP which yield household and market objects
S/no. |
Name |
Habitat |
Utilisation |
Processing |
Present status |
1. |
Bambussa Vilgains |
Mangrove forests |
stem used in rural construction of huts and fences |
cutting of stem and leaves removal |
depleting due to deforestation |
2. |
Raphia SPP Ornathensis decoration for ties etc. brooms etc. |
Fresh water mangrove |
Parts of the plant used to make ropes - Thatch roofing materials for rural dwellings - Mats - wrapping leaves - poles used for construction of ladders, musical instruments fastening hooks, fishing nets |
Special skills are used in getting out ropes, that is produced from the leaves as well as mats |
Depleting due to deforestation |
3. |
Panadanus Candelabrum |
Mangrove |
- Mats are made - from the leaves |
- extraction and shaping of the leaves |
depleting due to habitat destruction |
4. |
Elaeis guineensin - fibre from fruit in - fuel for cooking and sponge - baskets and ropes are made from the fronds |
Forest - Savannah |
Parts used as following - Stem used as building poles of rural houses - midribs of leaflets used in making rooms - The infruction is used in preparing native potash - The potash and its oil are used in making nature (black) soaps - oil from kernel is used as skin oil |
- Stem hole is cut into shapes - knives are used in clearing the midribs for broom preparation. - The infruction is smoked into ash - cooking of the ash and the oil yields the soap |
- depleting due to deforestation - Exists in farms- Its research institute exists in the country |
5. |
Rathus (cane) Fremospatha Sp Laccosperna secundi |
Mangrove |
- Mainly used for cane chair making |
- scraping (beautifying) of the sticks |
depleting due to habitat destruction |
6. |
Marantaiese family |
moist forest |
wood sponge |
- pounding to break up fibre bundles |
scarce |
7. |
Lufta cylindrica |
Forest Savannah |
- Fruit pod used as sponge for bathing and washing |
- Reword of the other skin - Extraction of the seeds |
Not planted. An annual plant but Produces lots of seeds, prevalent |
8. |
Mitragyina Spp |
moist forest |
- as wood sponge - leaves for wrapping |
- deplucking from stems and branches |
depleting due to deforestation |
9. |
Tectons grandus |
moist forest |
Leaves for wrapping |
deplucking of leaves |
- exotic spp - sometimes occurs in natural forests |
10. |
Isoberlinia dolka |
Guinea Savannah |
Thatch material for roofing of huts |
deplucking of leaves |
habitat destruction |
11. |
Sida Sp |
Guinea Savannah |
- ropes gute material |
- |
scarce |
12. |
Fandherbis albida |
Sudan Savannah |
- wood creed in carrying - mortar - pestle |
- Splitting of the stem and shaping using special implements |
depleting due to habitat loss |
13. |
Rhizopora Spp Avicennia african |
Mangrove |
- Fuelwood - Seattold roles - nature salt - jise - mollusc (periwinkle and clam) - shrimps |
- |
depleting due to habitat destruction and oil pollution. |
14. |
Nypa fruiticons |
Mangrove forest |
used to produce MATS |
- |
|
15. |
Pahdanna candelabrum |
Mangrove |
mats production |
- |
|
16. |
Pterocarpals Osun |
Forest |
Cosmetic powder |
Pounded into powder and mixed with little water |
Rarely seen. Tree not planted long rotation species |
17. |
Erythroughleum suaveoleums |
Moist forest fresh water swamp |
- to carve objects like - cooking ladle - mortar - pestle |
- cutting of the wood - use of special implements in caving |
- dwindling due to machy hawest of the species to make money |
18. |
Prosopis africana |
Savannah |
mortar restle |
carving |
abundance |
19. |
Kayan senegalensis |
Guinea Savannah |
- for constructing bed, furniture |
sawing and drying |
loss of habitat |
20. |
Ceiba pentandra |
Guinea Savannah |
Inner fruit stuff area as mattress stuffing |
drying of fruits |
loss of habitat |
21. |
Adansonia digitata |
Sudan Savannah |
- Ropes are produced |
- |
lack of regeneration |
22. |
Pitiostigma Thonningi |
Savannah |
Household furniture |
sawing carving |
over cutting of trees |
23. |
Gtanda gigas |
forest |
- carry mortar - pestle - wooden dish - beds stand |
carving |
depleting |
24. |
Balanites aegyptiaca |
Savannah |
carrying pestle - Food mixer - wood bunt to generate chariot |
carving |
depleting |
25. |
Anogeisus leiocarpus |
Savannah |
- wood used to produce poles |
carving |
abundant |
26. |
Crocata crocuta(spotted hyaena) |
Savannah |
- hides and skins produced |
_ |
depleting |
27. |
Red fronted gazella, quiker and monitor lizards |
Savannah |
hides and skins produced |
- |
depleting |
28. |
Apis mellifera |
Savannah |
- Wax - honey |
- |
abundant |
29. |
Lonchocarpus cyamedeans |
Forest |
Dye for clothes |
Pounded and soaked in water to extract dye |
Perennial shrubs not planted |
30. |
Dialium guineense |
Forest |
mortar pestle |
carving |
depleting |
The Raphia species obtained mainly from the mangrove/fresh water swamp forests can yield ropes, thatching materials (leaves and ropes), mats, wrapping leaves, poles used for construction, scaffolds, musical instruments, fastening hooks, fishing nets, cones used for holding house-blinds and ornaments for decoration and holding of ties, brooms etc.
Faidherbia albida wood from the sudan savannah vegetation are used to carve mortar and pestle. Sclerocarya birrea and Balanites aegyptiaca wood are used also for carving cooking utensils as well as bed stands and furniture. Dyes for clothes and cosmetic powders are obtained from Lonchocarpus cyanescens and Pterocarpus osun respectively.
Virtually all species of shrubs and trees are used as fuelwood. Fuelwood is collected from cultivated and uncultivated areas in all the ecozones. Fire-wood collection is an occupation of men, children and women. The main fuel-wood species of commercial significance are: Anogiessus leocarpus, Tamarindus indica, Parkia biglobosa, Diospyros mespiliforms, Prosopis africana, Eutyrospermum paradoxum, Isoberlina doka, Piliostigma reticulata, Balanites aehyptica, Combretum micranthum Moringa dolifera. Ceiba pentanda, Ficus sycomirus, Acacia albida, A. nilotica, Guiera albida, G. senegalensis, Pterocarpus erinaceous, Acacia senegal Afzelia africana etc.
This is a plant of the moist forests but occurs in the drier terrains of this forest zone. It's main product is its leafy vegetables which is cherished for making various vegetable soups amongst the people of South Eastern Nigeria. But it occurs in markets of the major vegetation zones of the country starting from Sapele in the mangrove forest to Maiduguri and Kano in the sudan savannah. The tariff reported on collection of G. africana in some states of Nigeria is about N4,000 per annum (FORMECU, 1994).
Out of 171 indigenous woody plants of economic importance identified by Okafor (1980), within the forest zone of Nigeria, Irvingia gabonensis ranks amongst five principal fruit trees which occur in traditional farms as compared to natural forests. The people's urge to ensure the supply of these cherished species is the main reason for the occurrence of the species in compound farms. I. gabonensis occurs in the forest zone as bush mango. This is because the fruits of one variety are eaten in addition to the cotyledon being used as a soup condiment. In the guinea savannah zone the species is recognized mainly because of its cotyledons. Irvingia gabonensis I fruits and cotyledons are observed to occur in markets of different ecological zones in Nigeria. Notably, they have been observed to occur in locations like Sapele (Mangrove zone), Benin and Enugu (moist forest zone), Makurdi (guinea savannah) and Maiduguri and Kano (Sudan savannah zone). The 1994 tariff payable on collection of Irvingia fruits in Cross River and Benue states are N3,000 per annum for the former and N25 per season for the latter, (FORMECU, 1994).
Gum arabic is produced by four species of the Sudan savannah zone of northern Nigeria. Tree species that produce gum arabic are notably Acacia senegal, Acacia seyal, Acacia raddiana and Acacia arabic. The species which are drought resistant produce different grades of gum (gum arabic). The gum is extracted during the dry season and is used for medicine manufacture, for confectioneries and the textile industry.
The wood of the species is hard and is used for carrying agricultural implements used by the people of the zone. The leaves also serve as fodder. A recent report (FORMECU, 1997) indicated that a family can harvest about N80,000 (eighty thousand naira) worth of gum arabic per annum. This achievement depends on the number of individuals that work for the family. Gum arabic is marketed, not only locally but exported and there are some organized commercial enterprises that deal in it.
Vitellaria paradoxa, the species that produce shea butter grow in the guinea and sudan savannah vegetation zones. The nuts from this species are processed by women using traditional methods into oil, fat and meal. The extracted oil is used domestically for consumption. The fat is used for medicinal purpose while the meal is used for feeding livestock. It is used in agroforestry systems by local farmers. The products are available for about 2 to 3 months of the year.
This is a common species of the sudan savannah, often occurring in clusters. The wood is suitable for handcraft carvings for household use. The villagers use it to carve pestle, foodmixer and handles of hoes and axes. The wood is also good for charcoal production.
The fruits, the leaves and the seed or nut are useful products to the communities, being consumed by humans. The leaves also serve as fodder. Parts of the species are used for traditional medicine by the people. Recognition of this species for these purposes is mainly in the savannah zone. Revenue generated by communities in the sudan zone collecting the fruits of this species is above N10,000 (ten thousand naira) per annum.