2. FOREST RESOURCE DEVELOPMENT THROUGH TIMBER PERMITS

The case study was carried out in cooperation with Stettin Bay Lumber Company Ltd. (SBLC), Timber Permit Holder of Timber Permit TP14-52, which is operating the Ania-Kapiura consolidated project located in the East and West New Britain Provinces; and with Vanimo Forest Products Pty. Ltd. (VFP), Timber Permit Holder of TP10-8, which is operating the Vanimo project located in the Sandaun Province, both in the Independent State of Papua New Guinea (PNG).

The granting of Timber Permits is the main policy instrument through which PNG's forest resources are to be developed in accordance with its National Forest Plan (NFP) of 1996.

Figure 1. Map of PNG showing the location of Vanimo Forest Products' Timber Permit TP10-8 (Vanimo) and Stettin Bay Lumber Company's Timber Permit TP14-52 (New Britain).

2.1 General information on project area development and allocation

In general, forest industry activities may be carried out by so-called "forest industry participants" under either

· a timber permit,
· a timber authority, or
· a licence granted and issued on the basis of the rules and regulations set out in the Forestry Act 1993.

The granting of a "Timber Permit" results from a decision taken by the National Forest Board, referred to as the Board throughout this report, as the result of a set of consultative processes and procedures set out in the Forestry Act 1993 for the development of forest resources (Figure 2).

Figure 2. Sequence of actions in Resource Development and Allocation ( Neville 1993).

A "Timber Authority," which mainly provides timber for domestic processing by small-scale industry, may be granted by a Provincial Minister without a development options study or the other procedures outlined in Figure 2. It may be issued for operations up to an annual timber harvest of 5,000 m³.

A "Licence" may be granted by the "Board" for a term not exceeding 12 months for forest industry activities other than those carried out, or proposed to be carried out, under a timber permit or timber authority (PNGFA 1993).

The types of land on which forest industry activities may be permitted and a forest industry participant may exercise timber rights are the following (PNGFA 1993):

1. Governmental land - as approved by the Board;

2. State leasehold - where the lessee consents to the lease conditions;

3. Private leasehold - where the owner consents;

4. Private freehold - where the owner consents; and

5. Customary land - where:

(a) a Forest Management Agreement has been entered into between the customary owners and the PNG Forest Authority; or

(b) a Timber Authority has been granted.

The "National Forestry Development Guidelines" (NFDG) of 1993 provide information about the general objectives and purpose of development which were based on the stated policy directions of the National Government at that time, and which were considered relevant to the forestry sub-sector (Neville 1993). The development of PNG's forest resources in a planned manner should therefore provide for:

· Employment generation and associated small-holder development through provision of equity to finance long term development investments;

· Development of competitive export production and import substitution;

· Encouragement of viable downstream processing of forestry production;

· Re-direction of resources away from prestige projects in urban areas and from unproductive bureaucracies, giving due recognition to the fact that the bulk of employment generation is coming from the rural sector;

· Designation and administration, in consultation with local communities, of ecologically valued areas as conservation areas;

· Addressing law and order problems by ensuring opportunities for the entire community to participate in the development process; and

· Preventing exploitative mining of the nation's forest resources.

Through the NFDG it was intended "that due recognition be given to the fact that PNG's forests can provide diverse benefits and that different uses of forest resources often compromise one another or are mutually exclusive" (Neville 1993).

Because it was considered inappropriate to dictate the value to be placed on each potential forest benefit (Neville 1993), the aim of the NFDG is to establish a primary goal of sustainable development of forested land and to set out broad principles and consultative processes through which decisions will be made on how best to achieve this for a particular forest.

For the two timber permits visited in this study, the "purpose of the development" stated in the relevant Environmental Plan documents was based on the common desire of the PNG Government to encourage economic development through the harvesting and utilisation of the timber resources in each province.

The statements on the "purpose of development" in SBLC's and VFP's Environmental Plans read as follows. These may be considered typical of PNG Timber Permits.

· To create employment opportunities for the people and to introduce economic activity in the project area by creating agricultural and business opportunities among the people of the area, and to encourage social development of the people of the timber area and the provinces as a whole but also for people from other parts of PNG;

· To encourage an integrated timber industry, transferring technology in timber processing such as sawmilling, kiln drying, preservation, and to develop a marketing network for both round logs and processed timber; this will ensure that the project will continue to benefit prosperity of the project area, especially with the tremendous infrastructures development envisioned within the project area;

· To improve the quality of life standards through infrastructure such as roads, bridges, wharves and urban development, but also communications, health services, nutrition improved through income earned from employment, and royalty payment for the landowners;

· To ensure financial returns to the Landowners (royalties), Provincial Governments (derivation grant, royalty and sales taxes) and National Government (export tax, income tax and other levies) as well as shareholders while increasing foreign exchange earning through timber exports;

· To follow and implement measures of tropical rainforest sustainable management plans related to the development and conservation of the resources for economic benefits, to attain sustained yield;

· To conduct applied research into the silviculture of indigenous tree species and other species, as well as research into utilisation of plantation grown timber, and to demonstrate the viability of reforestation and regeneration under an intensive management approach and consistent with the policy of sustained yield management of forest resources in PNG.

2.2 Description of study areas

2.2.1 Ania-Kapiura consolidated TP, West and East New Britain Provinces

The Stettin Bay Lumber Company Ltd., a private shareholding company jointly owned by a Japanese company and the PNG Government, commenced operations at Buluma, West New Britain Province (WNBP), in 1970. The company is currently implementing the third phase of TP14-52 "Ania-Kapiura consolidated TP" which includes the "Fulleborn Extension" and "Bulu TP".

The project area is located between 5° and 6° 15' south latitude, and between 149° 55' and 150° 52' east longitude. The total area of the project is 434,499 ha, which covers most of the eastern part of WNBP as well as a small portion of East New Britain Province (ENBP) and extends right across the island (see Figure 1). Of the total permit area, 212,430 ha represent new areas to be developed under TP14-52 in central New Britain and on the south coast (SBLC 1989). Almost equal in size are areas originating from an older timber permit that was not included in this study.

With the new permit (TP14-52) granted in 1989, the project area covered by the operations of SBLC presented an extremely varied environment, ranging from large alluvial plains dotted with active volcanoes in the North to narrow coral ledges on the South; from highly developed plantations and settlements with the processing and support industries to small, isolated communities without road or even air communication, such as those found on the south coast or in the centre of the island at that time (SBLC 1989). Although in the south there are no prominent mountains such as Mt. Otto (1,314 m), Mt. Wangore (1,155 m), and Mt. Matalelok (800 m) in the North, almost the entire permit area is mountainous terrain.

A number of rivers drain the catchment areas either to the north or the south of the island (SBLC 1999). The north coast, with annual precipitation of 3,000 to 4,000 mm, is normally dry from June to November, whereas the south coast, which receives 5,000 to 8,000 mm annually, is wet during the same period. However, during the last couple of years, the two seasons have been less distinctive (SBLC 1999), making planning of harvesting operations more difficult. The temperature is quite uniform throughout the year with only a minor diurnal variation of 6-8° within the maximum of 30°C and minimum of 19°C.

Five main vegetation types have been identified in the project area (SBLC 1989): (i) coastal vegetation; (ii) mangrove communities; (iii) mature forests in the lowlands and hills; (iv) lower montane vegetation; and (v) mid-montane rainforest. The latter has been excluded from logging due to the steep and unstable slopes on which it is located.

The developer, SBLC, is a well established forest industry organisation in PNG. The company has operated one of the largest sawmills in PNG since 1976. At present SBLC is involved in sawmilling, log and timber export, and reforestation. In recent years its harvesting operations have been operated under contract. The developer has constructed over 60 km of national and 700 km of provincial roads with numerous large bridges, and has established over 3,700 ha of forest plantations on government lands.



Photo 1. Plantations developed by SBLC on government land near Kimbe, north of TP14-52.



Photo 2. Infrastructure and plantations established by SBLC in accordance with the timber permit.

In 1989 SBLC was granted TP14-52 for a period of twenty-five years and is currently implementing the third Five-Year Forest Working Plan, which covers the period 1999-2004. TP14-52 comprises a number of timber areas, each consisting of several Timber Right Purchase Areas (TRP). The latter are areas of customary land over which the State has acquired the rights of felling, cutting, removing and disposing of timber (PNGFA 1993). The timber areas and the corresponding TRPs of TP14-52 are as follows:

The company's base camp is located on the north coast of New Britain Island, at Buluma. In the vicinity there is quite a large area of alienated land on which the oil palm plantations and settlements are based and where the townships in the area are located. All Government Land of 17,816 ha, out of the total timber area of 434,499 ha, is located to the north of TP14-52.

Road access to the project area is mainly provided by the company-built "Trans Island Road", which runs towards the south coast from the New Britain Highway in the north. In addition, access roads from Bialla in the east and from Talasea in the west, both on the north coast, and from Gasmata on the western part of the south coast, lead into the project area. Furthermore, there are two air strips, the Hoskins in the north and the Fulleborn in the south, the latter no longer used (SBLC 1999).



Photo 3. A small village along the Trans Island Road -the primary means of communication for many isolated rural communities.

In the south coast area, the base camp is located at Amio with its surroundings, the Fulleborne area of WNBP and Uvol of ENBP. There is no Government land on the south coast. The bulk of the land is traditionally owned, with only Fulleborn Plantation (about 600 ha of coconut palms) privately owned. However, as the local people have been keen on development, there was a willingness to provide land and the company was able to secure a lease from the traditional owners for the camp and the mill site at Amio (SBLC 1989).

The Environmental Plan for TP14-52 (SBLC 1989) provides the following breakdown for the project's forest area in 1989 when the timber permit was granted:

The production forest in the consolidated timber areas is mainly logged-over forest. About half of the new timber areas have been excluded from logging to prevent erosion or to maintain biological diversity and provide refuges for wildlife (SBLC 1989). The third Five-Year Plan for TP14-52 (SBLC 1999) indicates that 13-20% of the production forest areas, on average 17.7%, will remain untouched. This includes buffer zones along rivers and creeks, and hillsides with slopes steeper than 30º.

Given the fact that most of the land in Ania-Fulleborn area is relatively rugged, without the large plains of the north coast, it is unlikely that large tracts of land will be deforested for large-scale agriculture. However, as the land is largely traditionally owned by the local people, it will be up to them to decide what to do with it in the future.

Table 1 provides basic information on the availability of commercial timber in the project area. The results of a general forest inventory conducted by SBLC in 1980-81 in the primary forests of the Ania area suggest an average volume of about 45 m³/ha, whereas the estimate presented in the National Forest Plan (PNGFA 1996b) for East and West New Britain Provinces is only 30 m³/ha. Figures derived from survey data and presented in SBLC's Five-Year Plan are even lower.

Table 1. Timber resource estimates for the project area of TP14-52.

However, the results of the general inventory of 1980-81 served as a basis for estimating timber resources in the project area during the feasibility study phase of the project, before the agreement between SBLC and the PNG Government was signed in February 1989. One reason for the apparent over-optimism regarding harvestable volume in the early 1980's might have been the list of commercial tree species at that time. The current list of tree species considered to be of "commercial interest" in PNG can be found in Appendix 1 (PNGFA 1996c), whereas Table 2 shows the frequency of occurrence for the ten dominant tree species. These ten species accounted for about 70% of the total volume to be harvested according to the Annual Logging Plan (SBLC 2000).

Table 2. Dominant tree species in the SBLC timber area.

Because of high variability in harvestable volume and tree species distribution common to tropical forests, particular attention must be paid to reliability of data provided by a general inventory (Winkler 1997), especially since these data serve as a basis for setting the annual allowable cut. The level of the AAC itself, which should provide the maximum harvest volume while ensuring that the prospects for future harvests do not deteriorate, is instrumental in determining whether sustainable forest management can be achieved.

The project statement in the Five Year Plan provides a general outline of the TP holder's objectives and strategies for the planning period. For the TP14-52 plan covering the period 1999-2004, SBLC's objectives and strategies are summarised as follows (SBLC 1999):

· To manage and utilise the forest resource to achieve economic and industrial growth by producing an annual target of 200,000 m³;

· To sustain the forest resources in perpetuity as a productive asset for future generations by reforesting the annual planting projections of 750 ha and to leave adequate residuals;

· To improve, maintain, enhance and maximise social and economic benefits to land owners;

· To maintain employees and provide on-the-job training for national workers and facilitate the effective transfer of work technology;

· To operate in two or more different locations in each season, in the north during the months of June to November and on the south coast from December to May, using both the Buluma and Amio export log ponds and wharves.

2.2.2 Vanimo Project, Sandaun Province

The Vanimo Forest Products Pty Ltd., a private shareholding company owned since 1990 by a Malaysian group, commenced operations at Vanimo, Sandaun Province, in 1986 and is currently implementing the third phase of TP10-8 "Vanimo TP".

The project area is situated on the north coast of PNG between 2°40' and 3°10' south latitude and between 140°10' and 142° east longitude, with the provincial headquarters at Vanimo (Figure 1). The total area of the project is 287,240 ha, which extends westerly to the Indonesian border, easterly to the Aitape District, and about 40 km inland to the foot of the Bewani Mountains. The initial phase of the Vanimo timber project, from 1986 to 1990 (TP10-6) covered an area of only 39,270 ha of production forest. At that time Vanimo Forest Products Pty. Ltd. was owned by an Australian firm (VFP 1990a).

Already during the mid 1960's a series of investigations were carried out in the Vanimo and adjacent timber areas to determine the nature of the timber resources in the area. The PNG Government purchased timber rights for a period of forty years over large blocks of this area, beginning in 1967.

The areas were further investigated by several agencies and on the basis of the results, the PNG government invited tenders in 1976 for the development of Vanimo timber areas. It was not until 1979, however, that foreign companies began showing an interest in developing the project area. An agreement covering timber operations under TP10-6 was finally signed in 1984.

With a new permit (TP10-8) granted in 1990, the project area's environment changed considerably and now covers five major physiographic regions, namely the coastal plains, the alluvial plains of the major rivers, the coastal ranges, the intermountain lowlands and the inland ranges. The project area had no infrastructure except in Vanimo Town and several roads and bridges established by the company in the initial operating area of the preceding permit, TP10-6.

The project area has a wet tropical climate with only about 2,080 mm of annual precipitation at Vanimo due to the rain-shadow effect of the coastal ranges. On average, there are 200 wet days per year at Vanimo with a slightly higher proportion (110 days) occurring in the period from December to May (VFP 1990a). On the whole, however, rainfall is quite evenly distributed throughout the year with the driest months having 160 mm on the coast in August, and 130 mm inland in July. The temperature is uniform throughout the year with an annual mean maximum of 30°C and a mean minimum of 22°C. Relative humidity also varies only slightly during the year, with a mean maximum of 86% and a mean minimum of 80%.

Studies carried out in the early 1970's to classify the forest identified five main forest types in the project area (VFP 1990a), namely two lowland rainforest types and three hill rainforest types. The richness or dominance of certain tree species, e.g., Instia or Pometia species, was used to distinguish between different hill rainforest types. Unproductive forests are also common and these include sago swamps, gardens, regrowth areas, tree swamps, and inaccessible areas.

VFP is involved in sawmilling to serve the domestic market and also in log and timber export. In addition, construction of a plywood mill was started in the year 2000 to more fully support the downstream processing programme of the PNG government as well as to provide increased employment opportunities to the people in the area. Harvesting operations are carried out through a VSP subsidiary, "Vanimo Logging Ltd".

During the initial phase of the project, VSP constructed not only a sawmill but also a wharf at Vanimo Harbour, the only place along that part of the coast which is suitable for anchorage of ocean-going vessels (VFP 1990a). Besides smaller infrastructure projects, a major east-west road system was started during the course of the current project to connect Aitape with Vanimo, thus linking the Provincial Headquarters for the first time with the rest of the province.

The company has been granted permit TP10-8 for a period of twenty-five years and is currently implementing the third Five-Year Working Plan, which covers the project period 2000-2004. The project area covers all timber areas of Blocks 1 through 6. The relative positions of these blocks can be seen in Figure 10. Almost 95% of the land in the project area is customarily owned by local clan groups (VFP 1990a). On the coastward side of the Vanimo timber area for example, where harvesting operations were completed in the early 1990's, the area is owned by the coastal villages of Vanimo, Waramo and Ningera, and only in the immediate vicinity of Vanimo town is there any State-owned land.

The Environmental Plan for TP10-08 provides the following breakdown for the project's forest area in 1990 when the timber permit was granted (VFP 1990a):

The area of production forest in TP10-8 amounts to 234,080 ha, out of which another 27,000 ha (about 12%) have been excluded from logging for various reasons as indicated below, reducing the area actually scheduled for harvesting to 207,080 ha (VFP 1990a):

In addition, the Annual Logging Plan (VFP 2000) suggests that a further 9-20% of individual cutting areas will remain untouched due to difficult terrain and/or soil conditions, such as steeply sided creeks or swampy areas.



Photo 4. VFP maintains a multi-million Kina wharf capable of berthing and loading 10,000-ton vessels at Vanimo Harbour.

Table 3 provides basic information on the availability of commercial timber in the project area. The inventory results dating back to the investigation phase of the project area indicate an average volume of about 60 m³/ha in the primary forests of the area, whereas the estimates presented in the National Forest Plan for Sandaun province are only 22 m³/ha (PNGFA 1996b). Figures derived from inventory data as presented in the Five-Year Plan are even lower.

Table 3. Timber resource estimates for the project area of TP10-8.

Timber production data from the areas harvested in 1986, 1987, and 1988 indicate an average volume of about 48 m³/ha for Block 6 (VFP 1990a). However, Block 6 cannot be considered representative of the whole project area as the inventory results from the investigation phase indicated volumes per hectare for some forest types in Block 6 that were twice as high as in other blocks. The high variability in harvestable volume between blocks, even within the same forest type, underlines the importance of detailed inventories (VFP 1990a). As suggested in Section 2.2.1, one reason that harvestable volumes tended to be overestimated in the past might be the list of species considered to be of commercial or potentially commercial interest during the time when the general investigations were carried out.

The TP holder's objectives and strategies in respect to TP10-8 for the planning period from 1999 to 2004 are laid down in the project statement of the Five-Year Plan. In brief, the objectives are as follows (VFP 1999):

· To produce the highest possible yield of timber on a sustained yield basis;

· Maintain an adequate supply of logs for downstream processing and export purposes;

· Ensure that adequate quality and quantity of seed trees and residuals of desirable species are retained to achieve full timber stocking and enhance biodiversity;

· Minimise the deleterious effect of logging on the environment;

· Construct or cause to be constructed all the infrastructure projects enumerated in the agreement;

· Provide more employment opportunities for the community;

· Evolve, support, and generate small business enterprises or spin-off projects;

· Contribute more revenues to the PNG government and to landowners in the form of employment, income, royalties, taxes, and levies.

The company's strategies for achieving these objectives can be summarised as follows:

· The landowners will be given more active involvement and participation in the planning and preparation of the Annual Logging Plans. However, logging operations will no longer be concentrated in one site in the annual coupe in order to allow the proponent to convey from one sector of the Block to another when all efforts to resolve conflicts/problems had led to no effect.

· Digitized planning and survey instruments will be procured and used in the office and field respectively (e.g., Planimeter, GPS, etc.). This will give the company more realistic data and accurate information for preparing and sequencing the areas to be logged in the next five years.

· The foundation for road design and intensity will be the forest inventory result and aerial survey reports which will lead to more strategically constructed roads, considering only areas with sufficient commercial timber for harvesting.

· All machinery and equipment has a normal serviceable life, and old machinery and equipment will be replaced on a continuous basis. In the long run, it will be more practical to purchase new equipment rather than experience breakdowns during peak seasons and at unusual places and times.

· Progressive on-the-job training and back-up incentives will be granted to deserving employees. This will encourage them to be more productive and efficient.

· Existing transit landings will be maintained to stock pile logs harvested during the dry season for transport to Vanimo Log Pond during the wet season. This will allow for better control and co-ordination of the logging operation.

· Sawmilling of logs for domestic needs and export will be further improved to accommodate the ever-increasing demand for sawn timber. Similarly, a plywood mill will be constructed to fully support the downstream processing programme of the PNG government as well as provide more employment opportunities.

The other practices and strategies discussed in the PMCP and the Key Standards are no longer incorporated in the strategies since the company has made a commitment to follow all the standardised procedures (VFP 1999).

2.2.3 Description of the study sites

The field studies on current forest harvest practices were carried out with SBLC in Set-up No. M38, Mendrip, WNBP, Ania-Fulleborn timber area; and with VFP in Set-up No. BL14, Block 5, Basu-Leitre area. Throughout the report these areas are referred to as Set-up M38/SBLC and Set-up BL14/VFP, respectively.

In compliance with the Planning, Monitoring and Control Procedures (PMCP) for Natural Forest Logging Operations under Timber Permit in PNG (PNGFA 1995b), a pre-logging inventory of commercial species was conducted for the harvestable area of each set-up, about one year prior to submitting the set-up plans to the PNGFA project supervisor.

Furthermore, all trees to be harvested on the set-up areas were marked in the field and the intended felling direction was indicated on the bole of the tree as required by the PMCP. For details on the preharvest requirements see Section 3.2.

Figures 3 and 4 show the set-up maps for M38/SBLC and BL14/VFP which were submitted to PNGFA along with the pre-logging inventory results and other documents that are required for approval of the set-up plan.

For the purposes of this study, an area of about 26 ha within Set-up BL14/VFP, which will be referred to as Subplot BL14/VFP throughout the report, was investigated in more detail by means of a thorough preharvest survey. All harvestable trees (commercial species with dbh _ 50 cm) and potential crop trees (PCTs; commercial species with dbh _ 20 cm) were identified, marked, and recorded, and the tree's location was drawn on a map. Potential crop trees are those most likely to form the projected harvest in the next harvesting cycle, assumed to be in 35 years. Figure 5 shows the tree location map for Subplot BL14/VFP.



Figure 3. Map of Set-up M38/SBLC including planned locations of main skidtrails.



Figure 4. Map of Set-up BL14/VFP including planned locations of main skidtrails.



Figure 5. Tree location map for Subplot BL14/VFP. Lines shown within the subplot are inventory lines that were used during the survey.

Table 4 summarises stand characteristics for Set-ups M38/SBLC and BL14/VFP as determined by the respective pre-logging inventories. For M38/SBLC the inventory covered about 10% of the harvestable set-up area, whereas for BL14/VFP the inventory covered almost the entire harvestable set-up area. For reasons of comparison, general results from the more comprehensive preharvest survey of Subplot BL14/VFP are also provided in Table 4. Results for both harvestable trees and potential crop trees are provided for Subplot BL14/VFP in Table 5.

VFP's normal practice is to cover the entire harvestable set-up area with the pre-logging inventory. The sampling intensity of 94% for Set-up BL14/VFP was caused by the fact that the harvestable area increased from 109 to 116 ha due to the re-design of several neighbouring set-ups.

The values for volume per hectare shown in Table 4 illustrate the high variability in harvestable volume typical of natural tropical forests. Compare these values with the average values in SBLC's Five-Year Plan for the Ania-Fulleborn areas (24.5 to 29.6 m³/ha-Table 1) and those in VFP's Five-Year Plan (13.4 to 17.4 m³/ha-Table 3). Even within an individual set-up the volume per hectare might vary considerably, as can be seen by comparing the value found for Subplot BL14/VFP against the average value for Set-up BL14/VFP as a whole.

Table 4. Stand characteristics of the study areas prior to harvesting.

Note: Details on the pre-logging inventory of M38/SBLC can be found in Annex 2. Tree species groups differ between SBLC and VFP and are thus not directly comparable.

Table 5. Stand characteristics of Subplot BL14/VFP prior to harvesting.

A comprehensive preharvest survey as carried out for Subplot BL14/VFP or a pre-logging inventory as generally required for each individual set-up should provide information not only about timber stocking but also its distribution, in order to permit proper planning of extraction operations.

The results of the commercial inventories carried out with different sampling intensities at different stages of the timber project and in particular the high variability in harvestable volume even within set-ups, underscore the importance of systematically carrying out comprehensive preharvest surveys for each individual set-up. This will allow strategic planning of skidtrails in areas to be harvested, and will permit inadequately stocked areas to be identified and excluded from the harvest. Strategic planning of skidtrails will result in shorter average skidding distances, lower fuel consumption and maintenance cost, reduced wear and tear on equipment, improved logging efficiency, and reduced environmental damage.

The characteristics of timber harvest on the study areas, based on log volumes recorded after felling in Set-up M38/SBLC and after skidding in Subplot BL14/VFP, are summarised in Table 6.

Table 6. Characteristics of timber harvest from the study areas.

Note: (*) Figures in parenthesis show the volume and number of trees harvested that were not marked for harvesting during the pre-harvest survey.

For Subplot BL14/VFP, the timber removal by harvest of marked trees amounted to 65% of the volume estimated in the commercial pre-logging inventory. The corresponding figure for Set-up M38/SBLC cannot be calculated since felling operations observed during the study were limited to only about 12% of the set-up area and reference inventory data were not available for the specific area involved in the study.