RICHARD C. LAIR
FOOD AND AGRICULTURE ORGANIZATION OF THE UNITED NATIONS (FAO)
Forestry Department, Rome, Italy
and
Forestry Department Group, Regional Office for Asia and the Pacific (RAP)
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The designations and the presentation of material in this publication do not imply the expression of any opinion whatsoever on the part of the Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations concerning the legal status of any country, territory, city or area or of its frontiers or boundaries. The opinions expressed in this publication are those of the author alone and do not imply any opinion whatsoever on the part of FAO. |
Photo credits are below given by number, the photographers listed in order of appearance.
Copyright in all cases remains with the photographers, to whom FAO wishes to extend its thanks for their generous permission to reproduce their work.
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Tim Pelling: |
Front cover, 2, 22 |
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Richard C. Lair: |
Frontispiece, 1, 3-12, 14, 15, 17, 18, 20-38, back cover |
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Masakazu Kashio: |
Title page |
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Vichan Kochabal: |
13 |
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Preecha Phongkum: |
16 |
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Khyne U Mar: |
19 |
Designed by Richard C. Lair
ISBN 974-89472-3-8
Printed by Dharmasarn Co., Ltd., Bangkok
First print: October 1997
Second print: February 1998
Third print: November 1999
For copies write to:
FAO Regional Office for Asia and the Pacific (c/o M. Kashio)
Maliwan Mansion, 39 Phra Atit Road
Bangkok 10200
Thailand
Tel: (662) 281-7844, Fax: (662) 280-0445
E-Mail: [email protected]
Elephants are probably the only animals employed by man that have never been bred selectively, and being for all intents and purposes wild animals they should receive greater consideration than more domesticated animals. Actually the very reverse is usually the case.
A.J. Ferrier, 1947, The Care and Management of Elephants in Burma
‘Domestic’, ‘domesticated’, or ‘captive’?
The period covered
Legal status and jurisdiction of elephants
Interrelationship of wild and domesticated elephantsReleasability
Wild-to-domesticated transfer
Domesticated-to-wild transferThe role of domesticated elephants in wild elephant conservation
The literature on domesticated elephants
The history of domestication
The animalManagement perspectives on the keepers
The institutional perspective
The socio-economic perspective
The cultural perspectiveNumbers of domesticated elephants in Asia
Affinities between countries with domesticated elephantsSize of national populations
The domesticated-to-wild elephant ratio
The cultural divide
Development and its effects
Importance in conservation
Wild elephants
Distribution of domesticated elephants
Numbers of domesticated elephants
Legal status and registration
Institutions involved
Veterinary care and health
Recruitment
Prices and the market
Employment
Ownership
Mahoutship
Cultural dimensions
ConclusionsWild elephants
Distribution of domesticated elephants
Numbers of domesticated elephants
Legal statusDeclarations and monitoring
Standard forms needed
Individual identification
Conclusions: RegistrationState forest department wildlife agencies
State forest department logging operationsProject Elephant
Livestock agencies
Non-government organizations (NGOs)Veterinary care and health
RecruitmentPrices
The market
Employment
Ownership
Mahoutship
Cultural dimensions
ConclusionsDistribution of domesticated elephants
Numbers of domesticated elephants
Legal status and registration
Institutions involved
Veterinary care and health
RecruitmentPrices and the market
EmploymentSelective logging in natural forest
Work in production forests
Conclusions: EmploymentWild elephants
Distribution of domesticated elephants
Numbers of domesticated elephants
Legal status and registration
Institutions involved
Veterinary care and health
Recruitment
Prices
The market
Employment
Ownership
Mahoutship
Cultural dimensions
ConclusionsWild elephants
Distribution of domesticated elephants
Numbers of domesticated elephantsLegal status
Registration
Institutions involvedVeterinary care and health
RecruitmentRecruitment in colonial days
CapturePast capture
Recent capture
Offtake
Capture methods and mortality
Lack of supervision
Illegal capturePast breeding
The goals of breeding
Biological factors
Human factors
Possible solutionsMyanma Timber Enterprise elephants
The elephants
Work performed
Elephants, buffaloes, and machinesWild elephants
Distribution of domesticated elephants
Numbers of domesticated elephantsCharacteristics of the population
Legal status
Registration
Institutions involved
Veterinary care and health
RecruitmentPrices
The market
Employment
Ownership
Mahoutship
Cultural dimensions
ConclusionsDistribution of domesticated elephants
Numbers of domesticated elephantsMinistry of Interior
Ministry of Agriculture
Ministries of Agriculture and Interior comparedApparent population shifts by region
North
South
Northeast
Central, southeast, and Bangkok
Conclusions: Apparent population shifts by regionThe Wild Elephant Protection Act of 1921
The Draught Animal Act of 1939
The Wildlife Reservation and Protection Act of 1992Phlai Petch: A case study
Conclusions: The need for a special lawJurisdiction for registration and management
Technical needs for registration
Affixing an identification number
Improved registration formsAcceptable veterinary care
Reasons for poor veterinary careNo government program
Few veterinarians in large-animal practice
Graduates unwilling to enter government service
Insufficient elephant-specific experience
Owners are ill-informed and superstitiousRecruitment
Prices
The market
EmploymentPast logging
Illegal logging
Trekking tours
Street-wandering in Bangkok
Entertainment and tourismOwnership
Mahoutship
Cultural dimensionsWild elephants
Distribution and numbers of domesticated elephants
Legal status, registration, and institutions involved.
Veterinary care and health
Recruitment
Prices and the market
Employment
Ownership
Mahoutship
Cultural dimensionsWild elephants
Distribution of domesticated elephants
Numbers of domesticated elephants
Legal status
Registration
Institutions involved
Veterinary care and health
RecruitmentPrices
The market
Employment
Ownership
MahoutshipHuman mortality
Free contact, protected contact, or confined contact?
Wild elephants
Distribution of domesticated elephants
Numbers of domesticated elephants
Legal status
RegistrationInternational Registry of Domesticated Asian Elephants
Inducements to voluntary registration
Marking for individual identificationLivestock departments and domesticated elephants
Wildlife institutions and domesticated elephants
International umbrella organization
Veterinary care and healthRecruitment
Prices
The market
Employment (II)
Ownership
Mahoutship (II)Tribal mahoutship
Loss of individual skills
Loss of uniform standards
Modern elephant trainingPre-packaged programs: Law, registration, and veterinary care
The role of the West
Ethics
Appendix 1: People interviewed
Appendix 2: Domesticated elephant data, Thailand, selected years, 1990-1994