Jørgen Dahl
INTRODUCTION
Although representing a small fraction of the population, Danish professional fishermen contribute considerably to the national economy. This is illustrated by the fact that in 1977 about 15 000 full-time and part-time fishermen landed a total of 2,0 million tons of fish, crustaceaus, mussels and starfish. The net export value of this catch including the fish canning industry amounted to Kr. 2,6 billion.
The inland water commercial fishery, which is included in the above figures, represents only a negligible fraction (0,2 %) of the total catch. To the total production of freshwater fish, however, should be added 13 633 tons of pond trout (export value Kr 240 318 million) produced in about 500 trout pond farms.
Contrary to the reasonably correct official statistics on the commercial fishery a similar status on the recreational fishery is completely missing. There is no statistical information whatsoever concerning this part of the fishery which nevertheless undoubtedly represents an important part of the national economy, not only of the fisheries itself but of several other branches of the society.
An attempt on a preliminary and small scale to analyse this field has only recently been initiated. The information so far obtained should be estimated only with the greatest care on a national scale. Thus there is as yet no reasonable basis for giving an overall statement of the status of the recreational fisheries except for a few tentative estimations given below.
DESCRIPTION OF THE RESOURCE AND THE ROLE OF THE RECREATIONAL FISHERIES
The fishing area available to Danish marine fisheries is relatively large compared to the total area of the country which is 43 043 km2. Denmark might be characterized as an archipelago including one peninsula (Jutland) and about 500 islands which gives a coastline of about 7 300 km and a total area of the national fisheries zone of about 103 500 km.2
The area available to inland fisheries is estimated at 70 000 ha of fresh water, including ca. 15 000 km of major rivers and streams and ca. 43 000 ha of lakes. A number of lakes are still commercially exploited and in many rivers commercial eel fishing is performed by means of eel traps at a number of old watermills. The commercial yield is, however, small compared to the total yield of Danish fisheries.
As previously mentioned the role of the recreational fisheries can neither within fisheries as a whole nor within society be documented by any figures or statistical data. Fisheries as a recreational activity may therefore only be described in more or less philosophical and theoretical terms.
Also in Denmark it is commonly agreed by a number of experts in different fields that sport fishing must be recognized as one of the best therapeutics against the increasing stress that today's society charges upon man and a recommendable solution to the problem of the increased leisure time which follows from shortened working hours, prolonged week-ends, etc. It is a therapy not only with respect to human health, but a preferred substitute for less respected or even criminal leisure time activities.
This view is, however, not shared by all groups of society. The fact that the number of anglers in recent years has increased considerably means they have become a pressure group of considerable importance for the protection and improvement of the quality of fishing waters. This activity often conflicts with the traditional use of water by agriculture (irrigation, land reclamation, draining, canalization, sewage discharge), industry, and trout pond culture (water diversion, sewage discharge). Even between state secretariates there may be conflicting views with respect to the use of water resources, each ministry defending and protecting the rights of their own group of citizens. The official policy with respect to recreational fisheries therefore often appears to be ambivalent. The recreational fisheries often get more support from the Environmental Protection and Nature Conservation authorities than from the Fisheries authorities in spite of the fisheries regulations and laws being administered by a special Ministry of Fisheries. The latter is by tradition a ministry for a branch of trade and thus often fails to realize that commercial exploitation of the inland waters is a vanishing trade, whereas the recreational exploitation is rapidly increasing.
It must be stated that for the time being the Environmental Protection and Nature Conservation authorities are those most actively engaged in the protection and improvement of the inland waters for fish production and fishing. The practical administration of the Environmental Protection Act and the Nature Conservation Act is in the hands of the county water authorities who are supplied with far-reaching means to secure the best quality of the inland waters. These means have been further strengthened by the recently (1978) issued EEC Directive on Water Quality Requirements of Freshwater Fish which the EEC members (including Denmark) have agreed to observe.
INSTITUTIONAL ARRANGEMENTS
Proprietary Authority
According to ancient tradition the fishing rights in Danish inland waters belong to the riparian owner. This principle has been adopted in all inland fisheries acts given since the first one in 1898. There may however be exceptions from this principle, for instance, to quote the law, “… if other valid precepts exist or if someone has the right of property in the water or has acquired special fishing rights in the water in question”.
The fishing rights cannot be separated from the adjoining plot and cannot be leased out for more than 25 consecutive years. However, the fishing rights may be separated from the plot, if in this way it remains in or comes into the possession of the state.
It is not possible to give general rules with respect to prices paid for using private or public fishing waters. The owner of the fishing rights may exploit the water himself, or he may rent it out to individuals or an angling club which in turn may sell daily, weekly or annual tickets, or (in case of many lake fisheries) he may lease the fishery on contract to an angling club and/or a commercial fisherman. The latter is most often the case in many state-owned lakes. The prices vary greatly, but a normal principle of lease contracts in state-owned waters is that the lease holder pays a fixed annual amount and on top of that a certain percentage of the gross sale, ranging between 10–40%.
Legislative Authority
The Danish government makes the laws regulating the fishery both in the sea and in the inland waters. The laws contain provisions concerning the ownership of fisheries, regulations, protection (closed seasons, legal sizes), securing of the free passage of anadromous fish, etc. Furthermore, the laws open the possibility for making by-laws for individual water areas. The bylaws may restrict, but never extend, the provisions of the general law. A by-law is made by those primarily interested in the fishery in the area (in case of freshwater areas by the riparian owners), but can only be put into force after approval by the Ministry of Fisheries.
Provisions concerning licensing of access or sale of fish are not included in the Danish fishery laws.
Several attempts throughout the preceding 40 years to enact a special law on a general fishing license have all failed so far.
Operational Management
The Danish fishery laws are administered by the Ministry of Fisheries with biological assistance from its scientific fishery institutes. The Ministry of Fisheries also includes a special enforcement department, the Fishery Control, which enforces the provisions of both the Sea Fisheries Act, the Inland Fisheries Act, and the by-laws made according to these acts. The management and development of individual fishing waters, whether they be commercially or recreationally exploited or both, is not in the hands of any public agency, except for the waters owned by the state. The individual fishery manager has no obligation to follow the advice given except in cases when state subsidies are involved. The latter is the case with respect to trout liberation schemes for complete water systems as the managers of such plans may obtain a subsidy, though rather small, on condition that they stick closely to the scheme.
The management of most state-owned lakes is in the hands of the local forestry districts. Many of these waters are exploited on lease contracts either commercially or recreationally or both. Often the contracts contain provisions obliging the lease holder(s) to follow certain management principles.
Any manager or owner of an inland fishery, be it public or private, may request professional advice from the Inland Fisheries Laboratory which besides scientific research also offers a consultancy service. For public waters advice is free; private owners pay the direct expenses only in case field surveys are required. In state-owned waters (lakes) the administrative agency may supply special facilities to anglers and boaters (marinas, fishing piers, plots for cottages, etc.).
Private Sector Involvement
In many ways private enterprises are involved in supplying accessories to recreational fishing. In most cases, however, it is impossible to give exact figures as no organizations exist in this field. The only exception may be the production of brown and sea trout for stocking in rivers and coastal waters, as such fish are produced by private trout pond farmers and sold to managers of trout liberation schemes. As all stocking of trout must be supervised by the Fishery Control officers rather exact figures can be drawn from their reports. Thus in 1977 a total of 2 275 350 trout (1 594 650 fry; 352 000 halfyearlings; 199 450 yearlings; and 129 250 smolts) were sold to and released by trout liberation scheme managers. However, as the main business of the Danish trout farmers is the production of rainbow trout for the table, brown and sea trout production for liberation purposes is only regarded as a sideline, which means that the amount produced for this purpose varies greatly from year to year according to what is regarded as the most profitable. Thus in 1979 there has been a very short supply of trout for stocking. Some private enterprises manage put-and-take fisheries (mainly based on rainbow trout) in small private and isolated water areas, ponds, etc. Profit is presumably great as these enterprises are frequented, not only by Danish, but also by thousands of foreign anglers throughout the season.
A few inns, especially in Jutland, have focussed particularly on anglers, some of the inns having their own fishing areas in some of the best trout streams. The inns advertize their facilities in national and foreign angling journals.
In quite a number of the sea harbors professional (often retired) fishermen offer charter boats for whole-day sea angling trips the year round. Many thousand anglers apply to these trips every year. As prices are up to Kr 50 per person per day and most boats take up to 40 anglers on each trip the profit may be considerable. Also the catches may be considerable, mainly consisting of cod, herring, mackerel and garfish, most of it being used for home consumption or distribution among family and friends. But some sea anglers also sell their catch, a traffic which is not very popular to the professional fisherman.
Angler Involvement
About 45 000 Danish anglers are organized in clubs, but this number most probably only represents a fraction of those actually participating in this sport. Based on information gained from a preliminary analysis it might be estimated that there are in Denmark as a whole 250 000 more or less active anglers. On top of this comes an unknown number of foreign anglers which may increase the total number to ca. 300 000.
Again based on the before mentioned preliminary analysis each member of the club spends about Kr 1 500 annually on his sport. This amount includes club membership fees, licenses, transport, purchase of tackle, but excludes subsistence expenses on fishing trips. Supposing the club may be considered representative for the whole country this means that 250 000 Danish anglers spend about Kr 375 million annually on their sport, this money flowing into many branches of society (fish breeders, riparian owners, fishing tackle industry, transport, etc.).
Almost all Danish clubs are joined in the Union of Danish Anglers' Associations (Danmarks Sportsfiskerforbund) founded in 1929, although a few are members of the Freshwater Fisheries Association of Denmark (Ferskvands-fiskeriforeningen for Danmark), founded in 1902. The latter mainly represents the commercial interests (pond farmers, commercial lake fishermen, riparian owners, etc.). The Union publishes a monthly magazine, the Sportsfiskeren which in a popular way informs the members on all fields of angling. The Association also publishes a monthly magazine, the Ferskvandsfis-keribladet, containing articles of a more professional nature, including ones on market situations, prices, etc.
Both organizations have the right of prosecution according to the Inland Fisheries Act, and the Ministry is obliged to send information on all important matters to them for comment. They are both also represented on the committees amending or revising the inland fisheries acts.
The local angling clubs secure the access to fishing waters for their own members by leasing the fishing rights from the riparian owners. Leasing fees vary greatly and there seems to be no common practice except that the Union offers a standard contract for the clubs themself to fill in. Many clubs have a sometimes considerable income by selling daily, weekly or annual fishing tickets to nonmembers and foreign anglers.
The local clubs contribute considerably to the management and improvement of the fishing waters within their district. Many clubs manage a trout liberation scheme, all on their own expense, both by liberating fish and by exterminating pike and other noxious fish from their trout waters. The latter is legalized only on special permission from the Ministry.
As mentioned above the clubs may obtain a small state subsidy to fulfill a trout liberation scheme, but the amount at disposal has for many years been so small that the individual allotment can hardly cover the value added tax which must be paid on top of the price of the stocking material.
It is astonishing but encouraging that in spite of this the liberation schemes are managed almost to their full potential. The clubs thus perform an idealistic and self-sacrificing job in managing and improving their fishing waters, not only for their own benefit, but even more so for the benefit of the commercial sea fishermen who, without sharing the expenses, profit to a high degree by the increased production of trout smolts in the streams.
Fisheries Management and Coordination Arrangements and Mechanisms
Public and private agencies are coordinated in only one special committee, the “Penalty Fund”, to which—according to the Inland Fisheries Act—all penalties payed for violating the provisions of the law are allotted. The funds are earmarked for the improvement of inland fisheries (fish stocking, fish passes, etc.) and are administered by a board consisting of a representative for the Ministry of Fisheries (the chairman) and for each of the two organizations, the Union of Danish Anglers' Associations and the Freshwater Fisheries Association of Denmark.
Otherwise there is no official coordinating body between public and private agencies except for the previously mentioned participation of the Union and the Association in law-making and their right of prosecution and comment. The Ministry's scientific institutes (mainly the Inland Fisheries Laboratory) offer an advisory service to interested clubs and individuals with respect to fisheries management problems. The Union employs a special environmental consultant who more or less closely cooperates with the county water authorities which, according to the Environmental Protection Act and the Water Courses Act, perform the regular maintenance of the water bodies within their districts. A similar kind of cooperation exists between the county water authorities and the Inland Fisheries Laboratory.
RANKING RECREATIONAL FISHERIES PROBLEMS AND OPPORTUNITIES
As previously mentioned, it must be stated that the fundamental problem for the improvement of recreational fishery opportunities in Denmark is a failing perception of the fishery authorities and the lawmakers of the socio-eco. nomic importance of recreational fisheries in today's society. The sports fishers often meet more goodwill with the environmental protection authorities than with their own Ministry of Fisheries. The Ministry still follows a traditional commercial line, failing to recognize in full the fact that for many years commercial inland fisheries have been a declining trade, whereas recreational fisheries have become more and more important.
Fisheries Supply
Fishing possibilities and fishing water qualities are unevenly distributed over the different parts of the country.
Human activity (pollution, weedgrowth, canalization, land reclamation, hard-handed maintenance) restricts the fishing possibilities and reduces the fish producing capacity of the water bodies.
The lack of reliable catch statistics for inland fisheries, both commercial and (especially) sport, impedes a proper planning and management of fishery resources.
Fisheries Demand
The number of anglers is constantly increasing and so is the fishing pressure. An increasing number of foreign anglers creates problems. It is a commonly accepted view throughout Europe that sport fishing in Denmark is cheaper than in most other European countries in part because of the lack of a general fishing license.
Because of the increasing fishing pressure there is often an unwholesome competition between clubs for obtaining the best fishing waters which may lead to increasing leasing rates.
Riparian owners are disinclined to give access to fishing waters because recreational fishermen are often more active than other people in the effort to contribute to the protection of nature and the water-courses.
Fisheries Management
Effective fishery management requires fundamental ecological and biological knowledge and must be based on current research. However, the research so greatly needed is catastro-phically limited because of lack of funds, staff and interest from the authorities. A competent and effective advisory service is therefore for the time being greatly unsatisfactory.
Effective management is limited by conflicts between fisheries and other interests: statutory maintenance of water bodies; trout pond farming; land reclamation; water distraction for irrigation; canalization.
There is a lack of quality control of fish for restocking.
Lack of a general fishing license to provide funds for rational fishery management leads to an unjust distribution of the economic burden among active fishery managers.
The problem of water courses restoration has only quite recently been taken up seriously by one county water authority; much more work in this field is greatly needed.
KEY AGENCIES AND ORGANIZATIONS INVOLVED IN THE RECREATIONAL FISHERIES
Governmental Agencies
Ministry of Fisheries
Danish Institute for Fisheries and Marine Research, the Inland Fisheries Laboratory
Ministry of Environmental Protection
National Agency of Environmental Protection
Freshwater Laboratory
National Agency of Forestry
National Agency of Nature Conservation
Private Agencies
The Water Quality Institute
Angler Organizations
The Union of Danish Anglers' Associations
The Freshwater Fisheries Association of Denmark
Riparian Owners
The Freshwater Fisheries Association of Denmark
Tourism
Danish Tourist Council
Danish Council for Outdoor Life.
DEFINITIONS
Commercial fisherman: A person who gains at least 3/5 of his yearly income from fishery.
Part-time fisherman: A person who besides his main profession fishes with professional gear to supply his household or, by selling his catch, to supplement his income.
Angler: A person who fishes for leisure using only hand-gear (rod and line) and who does not sell his catch.
Game fish: Fish considered attractive by Danish anglers for sport and/or for eating: salmon, brown trout, sea trout, rainbow trout, pike, pikeperch, perch, eel.
Food fish: Fish which are eaten by other fish?
Coarse fish: Fish which are neglected or despised by Danish anglers; all cyprinids, ruffe, burbot. (There is a considerable difference between the preferences of Danish and foreign anglers with respect to coarse fish. Coarse fishing is a sport neglected by Danish anglers, whereas a considerable number of foreign anglers go to Denmark just because of our wealth of coarse fishes.)
Fishing licensing: Denmark has no general fishing license system in spite of several attempts at introduction through the last 40 years. The last attempt to enact a general fishing license was turned down by the Parliament in spring 1978 in spite of it being recommended by a departmental committee. Thus everybody can still fish freely in Danish inland waters except, of course, for buying a seasonal (daily, weekly, annual) ticket from the one(s) who disposes of the fishing rights in question. Angling in Danish territorial waters is free to anybody.
REFERENCE SOURCES AND PUBLICATIONS
Publications dealing exclusively with fishery resources and their recreational use have not been published in Denmark. However, in 1978 a small research group under the National Agency of Environmental Protection initiated a study of the socioeconomic importance of Danish inland waters. Recreational fishing will also be included in the study. The group has not published any reports so far.
The references in the following list are the only ones which, although sporadically, deal with different aspects of recreational fisheries and their allocation in Denmark.
—Brümmer, W., 1964: “Wo fängt man in Nordeuropa?” Paul Parey, Hamburg.
—Dahl, J., 1973: Freshwater fisheries management in Denmark. Proc. 6th. Brit. Coarse Fish Conf., Liverpool 1973:118–125.
—Fiskeriberetning. 1890–1977. Annual Reports on Danish Fisheries, edited by the Ministry of Fisheries, Copenhagen.
—Larsen, K., 1961: Vaerdien af en kubikmeter åvand (The value of one cubic meter of river water). Ferskvandsfiskeribladet 59 (11):209–215.
—Thomsen, W.S. (ed), 1970: “Fiskebogen”. J. Chr. Erichsen, Copenhagen.
—Thomsen, W. S. and F. Hansen (eds.), 1974–1976: “Dansk Sportsfiskerleksikon”. Branner and Korch, Copenhagen.
Pentti Munne
Ministry of Agriculture and Forestry, Department of Fisheries and Game, Hallituskatu 3 A, SF-00170 Helsinki 17, Finland
WATER RESOURCES
An abundance of watercourses, lakes and rivers, is a typical feature of Finland. Lakes are the most distinctive characteristic of the Finnish landscape, and number more than 55 000. Of these 17 have an area of more than 200 km2, and the total lake area is 31 500 km2, i.e., 9,4% of Finland's entire area (337 000 km2). The lakes are shallow, the average depth being 7 m and the volume 220 km3. Together they have a total shore length of 130 000 km. Nearly 1 ha of lake area and about 30 m of shoreline are available per capita of the population (4,7 million in 1975). The total length of the rivers exceeds 20 000 km (Anon. 1977a).
Finland is bounded in the south and west by the Baltic Sea. The coast is lowlying, broken, and dominated by islands, particularly in the southwest. This area, called the Archipelago Sea, is unique in its abundance of islands. The coastline and archipelago shoreline total some 27 000 km, i.e., 6 m per capita. The water in the Gulf of Finland and the Gulf of Bothnia is brackish, the salt content being only 0,2 to 0,7% (Anon. 1977a).
The abundance of lakes, rivers and streams provides excellent opportunities for all kinds of activities involving water. However, the amount of water available is sometimes insufficient in areas where the need is greatest.
Being shallow and covered with ice for a great part of the year, the lakes easily become polluted. Most of the watercourses in Finland are as yet in almost natural condition and their waters are clean. Only 1 100 km2 of the lake area, i.e., 3%, are badly polluted. The most extensive polluted areas are near pulp and paper mills, but polluted waters are found close to the cities, too. Some 100 km2 of the coastal waters located off large population and industrial centers are badly polluted. About 1 900 km of river length have been polluted by industry, public sewerage, or agriculture. It is not always possible to distinguish between slightly polluted areas and areas where the water quality is naturally poor. However, it is estimated that from 10 to 15% of the lake area in Finland is to some extent polluted as a result of human activity. More than 30% of the length of the rivers are slightly polluted, and from time to time effluents pollute between 1 500 and 2 000 km2 of the sea area (Anon. 1977a).
The lakes in Finland have generally been regulated and reservoirs built for the purposes of hydro power, flood control, water supply, water transport and timber floating. Most of the large Finnish rivers have also been harnessed for power production.
OWNERSHIP OF WATERS
The Finnish judicial system has inherited the Scandinavian principle, according to which water areas are in general privately owned. Most often this means that water areas inside village boundaries belong to that village and are jointly owned by the landowners, but the owner may also be the state, a private person, or an organization. This applies both to inland waters and to Finnish territorial waters. Water areas outside village boundaries at sea and in the middle of certain large lakes are owned by the state. They are known as public water areas.
A jointly owned water area may also be parcelled and divided among the owners according to their shares. In each case the proprietary rights are connected with the ownership of land and consequently government-owned water areas are concentrated in eastern and northern Finland, where the Government owns land. The extent of the village water areas in the lakes and in the coastal waters has been fixed as follows:
If the extension of the water is 8 km or more in width and length, a village shall control an area extending no further than 500 m from the point where a depth of 2 m begins; small expanses of water on the coast, in the archipelagos or in the lakes belong to the village.
FISHING RIGHTS
The basic legal provision in the use of waters is that the rights and obligations concerning a water area belong to its owner. That is why in Finland fishing rights, with some minor exceptions, belong to the owners of the respective water areas. The ownership unit is primarily the village and each farmer or landowner has his share in the jointly owned water area and fishing rights, depending on the size of his estate.
According to the Fisheries Act the management of water areas (fisheries) under joint ownership has to be organized by a meeting of the owners, who shall agree on a policy and elect an executive committee and chairman to realize the policy. The meeting also defines the extent of fishing rights for different shares. The owners are also responsible for conservation of the fish stocks and the management of the area.
The government is the sole or joint owner of water areas exceeding 0,5 million ha. These areas are administered by the National Board of Forestry. In granting fishing permits and leasing out fishing rights, according to the law, the Forestry Administration has to give preferential treatment to the local inhabitants, especially to those who do not have any fishing rights of their own. This especially concerns subsistence and recreational fisheries. Permits may be given for short periods, e.g., 1 year, and leases are made for 2-25 years. When leasing out the authorities may, and usually do, impose management and conservation obligations on the lessee according to the plan approved by the Forestry Administration.
These Government-owned areas include 69 special sport fishing areas (in 1979), where the permit fees are usually Fmk 5–20 (1 US $ = 4 Fmk) per day; Fmk 20–50 per week; Fmk 60–100 per month, and Fmk 120–150 per year. The National Board of Forestry also grants permits for angling, spinning, fly-fishing, and ice-fishing. The permit fees are Fmk 5 per week; Fmk 10–15 per month, and Fmk 30–80 per year. Foreign tourists must pay twice as much as Finnish citizens. The income from the fishing permits granted by the National Board of Forestry in 1977 was Fmk 1,5 million.
There are also fishing rights which are not connected with the ownership of a water area:
All citizens: fishing in the coastal off-shore area outside the village boundary (i.e., in the public water area). This applies also to recreational fishing by citizens of all the Scandinavian countries.
Inhabitants of a commune by a big lake: angling and other hook fishing outside the village boundary. The communes bordering the lake may together decide whether other fishing methods may be allowed.
Inhabitants of a commune: angling (minor restrictions)—a licence issued by the government or permits granted by the landowner are not required. In the outer archipelago and in an area facing open sea, net fishing for Baltic herring (Clupea harengus), sprat (Clupea sprattus) and vendace (Coregonus albula).
Inhabitants of a village: entitled, on making a reasonable payment, to obtain a permit for subsistence and recreational fishing in jointly owned water area.
Anyone who wants to fish in some other way than by angling with natural bait must purchase a general fishing licence (Fmk 15) and in addition he must obtain the permission of the owner of the water area.
Irrespective of the ownership conditions, the government, owing to the Jus Regale, monopolizes salmon and sea trout fishing in the Gulf of Bothnia and the rivers flowing into it.
The Teno River is the best salmon river in Finland. A special fishing convention has been made between Finland and Norway concerning fishing in that river. The importance of the Teno is apparent, for instance, from the prices of the sport fishing permits:
Finnish and Norwegian citizens, Fmk 40/day.
Others, Fmk 80/day.
In 1977 the permits granted in Finland for sport fishing on the Teno numbered about 10 000 (valued at Fmk 0,48 million; Toivonen and Hei-kinheimo-Schmid 1980).
The Åland Islands have their own provincial government and can pass their own laws relating to fisheries.
FISHERMEN
In Finland fishermen are defined as follows.
Professional fishermen:
Full-time fisherman (professional fishermen), who fish almost all the year round and obtain most (over 50%) of their income from fishing;
Part-time fishermen (semiprofessional fishermen), whose fishing is generally seasonal and who obtain most of their income from agriculture, forestry, etc., merely supplementing their income with fishing.
Non-professinal fishermen, who sell their catches only occasionally, if at all:
Subsistence fishermen, who fish for domestic use. Their own fish catches make an important contribution to their food. Their fishing is generally based on the ownership of a water area. They fish with gill nets, seines, traps, weirs or spoon baits. They may also angle, ice-fish or spin.
Recreational fishermen, who fish in their leisure. These fishermen are not concerned with the economic value of their catches. Their fishing expenses exceed the value of their catches. They mostly angle, ice-fish, spin, or fish with weirs or gill nets. They also fish with flies. Their fishing is usually based on the ownership of an estate, especially if they fish with weirs or gill nets.
According to the Finnish Game and Fisheries Research Institute (Anon. 1978), the numbers of fishermen in 1977 were as in Table 1.
FISHING
General
Fishing has always been an important occupation in Finland, but its character has changed during the last few decades because people have begun to appreciate it as a recreational activity. At the same time fishing methods and fishing equipment have developed and catches increased. At present the number of professional fishermen is only half as great as 20 years ago, whereas the catch per professional fisherman is three times as great in inland fisheries and four times as great in sea fisheries. In contrast, the number of non-professional fishermen is now twice as great as 20 years ago. In 1977 there were 2 121 full-time fishermen and 5 515 part-time fishermen in Finland. Besides this, some 460 000 households were fishing for their own needs (Anon. 1974b and 1978).
Catches and Value
Most of the catch comes from the sea in commercial fisheries. In 1977 the total catch was 115 595 tons, valued at Fmk 226 million (Table 1).
Expenses
In 1974 the professional fishermen invested about Fmk 24 million in fishing, the expenditure averaging Fmk 16 936 per fisherman in the sea fisheries and Fmk 3 603 per fisherman in the inland fisheries (Anon. 1976a). The ratio of income to expenses in the professional sea fisheries was calculated to be 2,43:1 (Lehtonen 1976). The expenses of the non-professional fishermen are presented later in this report.
External Trade
In 1978 the external trade in fish and fish products was as in Table 2 (Niskanen 1979).
Aquaculture
In Finland there are at present (1978) some 150 fish farms (Anon. 1979), of which about 40 produce smolts (in 1977 more than 1,2 million trout and more than 0,15 million salmon), fry and other stocking material, and about 120 produce rainbow trout for human consumption (in 1978, 3,5 million kg, valued at about Fmk 53 million; Arasto et al. 1979). Besides this, some hundreds of ponds with natural food have been built to produce stocking material, mainly whitefish (Coregonus sp.). At present the total area of such ponds in Finland is about 3 800 ha (Arasto et al. 1979), and they produce ca. 20 million one-summer-old whitefish for release every year.
Table 1. Number of Finnish fishermen, and the amount and value of their catches, in 1977. Source—Finnish Game and Fisheries Research Institute (Anon. 1978).
| Category of fisherman | Sea fisheries | Inland fisheries | ||||
| Number of fishermen | Catch | Number of fishermen | Catch | |||
| 1 000 kg | Valuea Fmk 1 000 | 1 000 kg | Valuea Fmk 1 000 | |||
| Full-time | 1 793 | 72 363 | 73 918 | 328 | 1 247 | 6 250 |
| Part-time | 2 939 | 15 048 | 23 115 | 2 576 | 3 113 | 15 036 |
| Non-professional | 108 816 | 6 646 | 23 622 | 342 203 | 17 178 | 84 428 |
| Total | 113 548 | 92 057 | 120 655 | 345 107 | 21 538 | 105 714 |
Table 2. Finnish external trade in fish and fish products, 1978.
| Imports | Exports | ||||
| Quantity | Value | Quantity | Value | ||
| 1 000 kg | Fmk 1 000 | 1 000 kg | Fmk 1 000 | ||
| Total fish and fish products including | 165 632 | 323 552 | 2 022 | 10 602 | |
| Fishmeal | 58 805 | 120 072 | - | - | |
| Fish waste | 86 101 | 47 164 | - | - | |
SUBSISTENCE AND RECREATIONAL FISHING
General
The rapidly growing demand for recreation, resulting from general increases in urbanization, mobility, leisure time, stress, etc., is continuously increasing the use of our water resources for non-professional fishing, and the national economic importance of “sport fishing” is consequently growing. The number of general fishing licences purchased has doubled since the 1950s and the number of permits granted by, for instance, the National Board of Forestry has increased almost threefold in the last 10 years.
Recreational fishing is a very popular way of spending leisure time in Finland. It is an activity which can be pursued in both summer and winter time, by young and old of both sexes. However, there are only a few studies on recreational fisheries in Finland, and the most recent (Lehtonen and Salojärvi 1979) is based on statistics from 1975. In both that and the present report recreational and subsistence fishing are dealt with together, since they cannot be clearly separated from each other in Finland.
The Status of Subsistence and Recreational Fishing
The study made at the Finnish Game and Fisheries Research Institute (Lehtonen and Salojärvi 1979) was based on the purchase of general fishing licences. The material consisted of a sample of 10 055 families which purchased state fishing licences in 1975. In that year altogether 472 000 general fishing licences were sold (valued at Fmk 4,7 million). The state fishing licence is not restricted to one person, but entitles all the members of a household to fish.
In the families studied, the average number of persons actually fishing was 1,84. Accordingly, it was calculated that some 800 000 people were engaged in subsistence and recreational fishing in Finland in 1975. Besides this, it must be remembered that a person under 16 years is permitted to fish without any fishing licence, and that every Finnish citizen has the right to angle with natural bait within his own municipality or commune without purchasing a general fishing licence.
Altogether 14,5 million fishing-days were spent in subsistence and recreational fishing in 1975, an average of 18,6 days per fisherman (Lehtonen and Salojärvi 1979).
According to another study (Anon. 1974a), made by a fishing equipment company, there are nearly two million fishermen in Finland, of which about one million fish at least four times a summer.
The species most often caught in subsistence and recreational fishing in 1975 were perch (Perca fluviatilis), pike (Esox lucius), roach (Rutilus rutilus), bream (Abramis brama), whitefish (Coregonus sp.), vendace (Coregonus albula) and burbot (Lota lota), in that order; in commercial fishing: Baltic herring (Clupea harengus), salmon (Salmo salar), whitefish and vendace (Anon. 1977c). The average catch was 0,210 kg per fishing day in the sea and 0,147 kg per day in inland waters (Lehtonen and Salojärvi 1979).
The economic value of the catch in subsistence and recreational fishing cannot be measured on the same basis as in commercial fishing. Account should be taken of the amount of money invested by the fishermen in their “sport.” According to answers to questionnaires, the expenditure of the subsistence and recreational fishermen in 1975 was Fmk 144 million. This amount included travelling, accommodation, and fuel expenses as well as the purchase of fishing equipment and fishing permits. Thus the cost of one kilogram of fish was Fmk 6 and the total expenses were 1,5 fold the gross value of the catch (Lehtonen and Salojärvi 1979).
In the tourist industry there has been interest in selling opportunities for fishing, but some restrictions must be imposed, especially in inland waters: for instance, the opportunities for fishing salmon and trout are now limited.
FISHERIES ADMINISTRATION AND ORGANIZATIONS
Government responsibility for both inland and sea fisheries in Finland is vested in the Ministry of Agriculture and Forestry.
In the ministry, the principal administrative agency is the Department of Fisheries and Game (altogether 18 persons). The department manages fishery policy, draws up the fishery budget, prepares laws, deals with fishery business with foreign states, looks after and safeguards the public interest concerning fisheries during the various stages of administrative measures and judicial proceedings regarding the use of waters, supervises and finances management of and research on fishing waters and fisheries, promotes professional and non-professional fisheries, plans fishery resource development, etc.
The ministry also has the Department of Veterinary Medicine, which is responsible for the control of fish diseases.
Under the ministry is the National Board of Waters, which is the public supervisory authority (excluding fisheries) and which is responsible for the protection, general planning, and control of the water resources.
Under the ministry is also the National Board of Forestry which, as mentioned above, administers slightly more than 0,5 million hectares of different kinds of water areas. The major part of these waters is used for subsistence and recreational fishing. The prices of permits are fixed according to instructions given by the Ministry of Agriculture and Forestry. The funds from permits are used for management and surveillance of fishing waters.
Under the ministry, the governmental fisheries research body is the Finnish Game and Fisheries Research Institute, which has a Fisheries Division (about 130 persons). The Fisheries Division carries out research on both inland and sea fisheries and on fish culture, and prepares the fishery statistics. The Fisheries Division has ten inland fish culture and research stations.
The Fisheries Administration, i.e., the Department of Fisheries and Game in the Ministry of Agriculture and Forestry, has no official field organization. It therefore makes some use of Government-sponsored organizations (altogether about 60 persons) as its unofficial field organization.
The following Government-sponsored instructional organizations exist in the field of fisheries in Finland.
Federation of Finnish Fisheries Associations (Kalatalouden Keskusliitto)
Founded in 1881, this is the central organization for regional associations of professional fishermen and owners of fishing waters. Member organizations: regional associations of professional fishermen (coastal) 8, and centers for agricultural instruction (inland) 15. Program: overall development of fisheries, including management and rational exploitation of fishing waters, professional fisheries, fishery technology, fish farming, fish handling and processing, fishing industry and assistance of the Fisheries Administration.
In 1978 the income from the fishing permits granted by members of the regional associations was Fmk 4,33 million.
The Federation of Finnish Fisheries Associations publishes three periodicals (Kalastaja, Suomen Kalastuslehti and Fiskeritidskrift för Finland).
The Finnish Free Time Fishers Central Organization (Suomen Kalamiesten Keskusliitto)
Founded in 1950, this is the central organization for recreational fishermen. Member organizations: the whole country is divided into 17 districts and these districts have more than 500 angling clubs and associations. Membership is at present about 60 000. Program: promotion of fishing for recreation and subsistence, management of fish stocks and fishing waters, and promotion of fishing in general.
The Finnish Free Time Fishers Central Organization publishes the Kalamies (Fisherman), an instructional and informational periodical (10 issues per year), distributed principally to duespaying members.
The Finnish Fish and Game Association (Suomen Metsästäjä- ja Kalastajaliitto)
Founded in 1946, this is the central organization for recreational fishermen and hunters. Membership is at present about 6 000. It publishes the Erämies (Hunter), an instructional and informational periodical.
Of the recreational fishermen, less than 10% belong to an organization. One of the most important duties of the organizations is to obtain fishing facilities for their members and also to advertize accessible fishing waters. The organizations have therefore published guidebooks to the fishing waters (including possible services: boats, equipment, huts, etc.) offered by private owners.
The organizations of recreational fishermen have also tried to expand the fishing rights. The reasons they give include the following: for the people of today, living in a highly industrialized society, it is of vital importance to have free access to the recreation afforded by woods, the countryside and fishing waters; the demand for easily accessible and good fishing waters has grown dramatically. Thus the need is felt for new fishery legislation and fishery conservation better corresponding to the requirements of recreational fishermen. However, attempts to expand fishing rights and opportunities have been hampered by private ownership and the uneven distribution of fishing waters in relation to population and industry.
PUBLICATIONS
Ala-Ketola, E., et al. 1977 Kalastuslainsääntökomitean mietintö—Kommitténs för Fiskerilags-tiftning betänkande (Report of the Committee for Fishery Legislation—in Finnish and in Swedish). Komiteanmietintö 1977:47. 233 p.
Anon. 1974a Yhteenveto kahden kalastustutkimuksen tuloksista (Summary of results of two fishery studies—in Finnish). Makrotest. 13 p.
Anon. 1974b Fishing in 1962–1973. Suomen Kalatalous 47:26–49.
Anon. 1976a Toimialatutkimus kalastuksesta (Research on scope of professional fisheries—in Finnish). Kehitysaluerahasto Oy. Kuopio 1976. 208 p.
Anon. 1976b Water legislation and supervision of the use of waters in Finland. The National Board of Waters. 15 p.
Anon. 1977a Water resources and their utilization in Finland. The National Board of Waters. 15 p.
Anon. 1977b Planning and management of water resources by the National Board of Waters in Finland. The National Board of Waters. 15 p.
Anon. 1977c Fishing in 1975. Suomen Kalatalous 48.
Anon. 1978 Fishing in 1977. Suomen Kalatalous 48.
Anon. 1979 Kalanviljelylaitokset 1979 (Fish farms in 1979—in Finnish). Kalatalouden Keskuslitto. 19 p.
Anttila, R. 1971 Helsingin, Espoon ja Sipoon merialueiden vapaa-ajankalastus vuonna 1969 (English summary: leisure time fishing in Helsinki, Espoo and Sipoo waters in 1969). Vesien-suojelulaboratorion Tiedonantoja 3(3):1–120.
Anttila, R. 1972 Helsingin merialueen vapaa-ajankalastuksen erityispiirteet (English summary: special features of leisure time fishing in the sea area off Helsinki). Vesiensuojelulaboratorion Tiedonantoja 4(2):1–123.
Arasto, V., et al. 1979 Kalatalouden tavoitekomitean mietintö—Betänkande avigivet av målkommittén för fiskerihushållningen (Report of Committee for Fishery Policy—in Finnish and in Swedish). Komiteanmietintö 1979:41. 125 p.
Frilander, N. 1975 Vapaa-ajankalastuksen piirteitä Keski-Suomessa (Some features of leisure-time fishing in central Finland—in Finnish). Kalamies 1975 (3, 4, and 5).
Lehtonen, H. 1976 Tutkimus Kemira Oym Porin tehtaiden jätevesien kalataloudellisista vaikutuksista sekä kalataloudellinen tarkkailu- ja hoitosuunnitelma (English summary: Study of the effects of water from a titanium dioxide plant on the fishery in the Gulf of Bothnia near Pori and plan for the monitoring and management of the fishery). Riista- ja kalatalouden tutkimusmuslaitoksen Tiedonantoja 6:1–289.
Lehtonen, H. and K. Salojärvi. 1979 Kotitarve- ja virkistyskalastus Suomessa 1975 (English summary: Amateur fishing in Finland in 1975). Suomen Kalatalous 48:41–55.
Mikkola, H. and H. Oksman. 1974 Selvitys vapaa-ajankalastuksen tarvitsemista vesialueista Kuopion, Iisalmen ja Varkauden ympäristössä (Water areas needed for leisure-time fishing in the neighbourhood of Kuopio, Iisalmi and Varkaus—in Finnish). Pohjois-Savon seutukaavaliitto A:2 (4.5). 32 p.
Mikkola, H. and H. Oksman. 1974 Urheilukalastukseen sopivat alueet Pohjois-Savossa (Water areas suitable for sport fishing in northern Savo—in Finnish). Pohjois-Savon seutukaavaliitto A:3 (4.8). 26 p.
Munne, P. 1979 Virkistyskalastuksen arvon määrittämisestä (Value of recreational fisheries—in Finnish). Kalamies 1979 (8 and 9).
Niskanen, P. 1979 Review of fisheries in OECD member countries 1978-Finland. Manuscript. 11 p.
Ollikainen, M. 1970 Suomen Kalamiesten Keskusliiton jäsenistöstä tehty tutkimus (Study of the membership of the Finnish Free Time Fishers Central Organization—in Finnish) Kalamies 1970 (10) and 1971 (1–7).
Salojärvi, K., H. Auvinen and E. Ikonen. 1978 Oulujoen vesistön kalataloudellinen hoitosuunnitelma (Plan for the management of fisheries in the Oulujoki Watercourse—in Finnish). Manuscript. 281 p.
Toivonen, J. and O. Heikinheimo-Schmid. 1980 Kalastus Tenon vesistössä Suomen puolella (English summary: Fishing on the Finnish side of the Tenojoki Watercourse). Suomen Kalatalous 49.
Tuunainen, P. 1970 Päijänteen kalataloustutkimus. Alustava tutkimusselostus ja hoitosuunnitelma I (Fishery research on Lake Päijänne. Preliminary report and preliminary plan for the management of fisheries—in Finnish). Jyväskylän Hydrobiologisen tutkimuslaitoksen Tiedonantoja 7. 101 p.
Tuunainen, P., L. Hakkari and R. Parmanne. 1974 Längelmäveden kalataloustutkimus ja alustava hoitosuunnitelma (Fishery research on Lake Längelmävesi and preliminary plan for the management of fisheries—in Finnish). Jyväskylän Hydrobiologisen tutkimuslaitoksen Tiedonantoja 41. 104 p.
Tuunainen, P., et al. 1976 Kalastus Inarissa, Utsjoella ja Enontekiöllä (Fishing in Inari, Utsjoki and Enontekiö—in Finnish). Manuscript. 101 p.
