C. PROBART, E. MCDONNELL AND P. BIRKENSHAW
Claudia Probart, Ph.D., R.D., is an Associate Professor in the Pennsylvania State University Department of Nutritional
Sciences and Principal Investigator of Project PA. Elaine McDonnell, M.S., R.D., is Project Coordinator of Project PA
at the Pennsylvania State University. Pat Birkenshaw, M.A., is the State Director of Child Nutrition Programs at the
Pennsylvania Department of Education, Division of Food and Nutrition.
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School meals programmes are achieving increasing attention as a method for improving the health and education of the world's children. The United States of America has a long history of school meals projects, starting with the recognition that hunger prevents children from learning. Early programmes typically provided food for the poorest children in the larger metropolitan areas such as New York, Milwaukee, Chicago, Los Angeles, Philadelphia and Boston, all of which had programmes by the early 1900s (USDA, Food and Nutrition Service Web site: background). Many of these programmes were started by voluntary organizations and then taken over by the Boards of Education at the urging of anti-hunger advocates and parent-teacher organiza tions. The nutri tional health of the nation became a national security issue during the Second World War as a consequence of the identification of malnutrition among men attempting to enlist in the armed forces (Martin, 1999). Immediately after the war, President Harry Truman authorized the National School Lunch Act (NSLA) as a national defence initiative. By the end of the first year (1946-47), 7.1 million children were participating in the programme (USDA, Food and Nutrition Service Web site: fact sheet). Today, more than 27 million children eat school lunch in the United States (ibid.).
While the problems of poverty and hunger persist in the United States, many children are now at risk of chronic diseases related to obesity associated with diets of high caloric and low nutrient density. To address these changing dietary problems, the United States Department of Agriculture (USDA), which oversees the school meals programmes, implemented the School Meals Initiative for Healthy Children (SMI) in 1995, revising the nutrient requirements to ensure that school meals meet guidelines for fat and saturated fat in addition to the requirements for calories, protein and micronutrients that were required previously (USDA, 1995) (Table 1). The SMI also required that schools assume additional recording and reporting responsibilities, which trig gered an urgent need for training the nation's school foodservice (SFS) directors. To meet this training need, USDA implemented a programme to provide materials and encourage educa tion to facilitate the development of training programmes. This article describes the effort of the Commonwealth of Pennsylvania to meet the training needs for its 3 954 public and private schools participating in the National School Lunch Program (NSLP).
Several challenges existed in the development of training programmes designed to facilitate implementation of the SMI in SFS operations in Pennsylvania:
TABLE 1: School Meals Initiative nutrient standards
School lunch |
School breakfast |
|
Protein, vitamin A, vitamin C, iron, calcium and calories |
One-third of RDA1 |
One-quarter of RDA1 |
Fat |
30 percent or less of total calories |
30 percent or less of total calories |
Saturated fat |
Less than 10 percent of total calories |
Less than 10 percent of total calories |
1 RDA = recommended dietary allowance. | ||
To address the training needs for SFS personnel in Pennsylvania, Project PA was initiated in September 1995 at the Pennsylvania State University (PSU). Under the authority and direction of the Pennsylvania Department of Education, and with the guidance of SFS directors throughout the state, two nutritionists from PSU planned and implemented the first training programme. Over the subsequent eight years, training activities have targeted an expanding network of school and community members under the auspices of Project PA. Target audiences have included SFS personnel, teachers, school administrators and parents.
Project PA is funded by the Pennsylvania Department of Education, Division of Food and Nutrition, with federal USDA “State Administrative Expense” (SAE) funds, as well as federal USDA Team Nutrition grants. While a variety of projects have been conducted by Project PA, three major programmes will be described in this article: satellite teleconferences, the Master Instructor Program and the Project PA Web site. These all demonstrate Project PA's communication strategy, incorporating an array of technology methodologies that have been developed to reach urban concentrations as well as the scattered rural population of the state.
Project PA's educational strategy is based partly on Bandura's Social Cognitive Theory (Bandura, 1986). Bandura's theory, especially as it relates to role models, guided aspects of each of the three programmes described here: the satellite teleconferences have utilized well-known SFS directors as role models and to model the problem-solving processes they use to meet USDA requirements; an elite corps of well-respected SFS directors serve as role models and spokespersons in the Master Instructor Program; and successful SFS directors and their programmes are featured on the Project PA Web site.
Satellite teleconferences use an orbiting satellite to deliver programmes that are broadcast from a studio (uplink site) to local sites (downlink sites) equipped with receiving equipment. An almost un limited number of these local sites can be provided with the broadcast coordinates and so participate in the teleconferences. The programmes are viewed at the local sites over television monitors. They are called “teleconferences” because a degree of interaction is possible whereby the local sites can telephone or fax questions and comments to the studio, which can then broadcast this communication to the entire audience.
Teleconferences have been used successfully in both business cooperative extension and education applications as they can reach a large number of people over a wide geographical area, providing them with precise, authoritative information at relatively low cost. They have been used less frequently for general audiences or those not particularly motivated or “rewarded” for attending. A criticism of teleconferences is that the typical lecture format - with questions and answers viewed over a television monitor - tends to be bland and uninteresting.
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The decision to use the satellite teleconference format was taken because of the need to reach a large number of SFS directors across the entire state in a short time period. However, the wide range of educational levels, job knowl edge and experience, and motivation to learn about and assume new respon sibilities among SFS directors in Pennsylvania required that the telecon ferences be both relevant and compelling.
Three teleconferences were developed and delivered, focusing on providing the motivation and skills needed for successful implementation of the SMI. Each teleconference built upon the education provided by the previous one(s), taking into account the educational readiness of the target audience.
To increase the interest and applicability, a special interactive format was created. Trained facilitators conducted group activities at each local site for a set time period, during which the satellite broadcast was shut down. SFS directors and Pennsylvania Department of Education staff, trained to lead group activities and in the specifics of the broadcast content, and equipped with facilitator manuals with pre-tested, scripted activities and discussion questions, served as facilitators at the downlink sites in Pennsylvania and at the USDA headquarters in Washington, DC. Short, pre-recorded tapes using dramatic skits or “TV newsmagazine” features were developed to model common problems and solutions. The tapes were then broadcast, in combination with input from live experts and moderators, to provide interest and variety. During the later portion of each teleconference, comments and questions were faxed and telephoned into the studio from the local sites and addressed by expert panels.
The SMI presented an additional training challenge because new responsibilities and skills need to be conveyed and many SFS directors felt frustrated by the imposition of additional regulations. They feared that participation in the school lunch programme would drop because of the menu changes required by the new regulations. These fears needed to be recognized and addressed in order for the training to be effective. Teleconference I: “Making the Choice” opened with videotaped interviews of SFS directors expressing their concerns about their ability to meet the SMI requirements. These concerns were then addressed, one by one, and information and guidance that the directors needed to meet the initial challenges related to planning menus were provided.
The SFS directors were anxious about the review process and the possibility of losing funding if they failed the review. To address this concern, the second teleconference, “Taking the Steps”, showed a successful simulated review of the school meals programmes in one school district and explained the SFS documentation and reporting require ments. The same individuals who had featured in the first teleconference were re-interviewed about their progress. Each said that the process had not been as difficult as he or she had feared initially. The teleconference ended with the videotapes of these very positive inter views. Teleconference III: “Making it Work”, presented a video documentary featuring two new SFS directors as they progressed through the steps over a one-year period and modelled the implementation of the SMI in their districts. It also showcased a variety of “best practices” related to SMI implementation drawn from directors throughout the state.
The three satellite teleconfer ences reached approximately 2000 SFS directors at the 30 downlink sites throughout the state. Edited videotapes of each have been distributed to all NSLP sponsors in Pennsylvania and used for training at the local level. Evaluation has proved that this medium can be an effective tool for the provision of training for SFS personnel. Significant improve ments in knowledge and attitudes were noted following each teleconference. The interactive nature of the teleconferences, the facility this gave for the audience to communicate directly with government regulators and other experts at the studio and have their questions and concerns answered, and the relevant and compelling format were all factors that were credited with their success.
SFS directors were the primary target audience of Project PA's initial training efforts. However, as their understanding of and comfort with the new requirements related to the introduction of the SMI grew, needs assessments identified the need for training for other levels of SFS employees such as cafeteria managers and other school-level person nel. A cost-effective strategy to provide consistent, authoritative, standard ized information was needed for training this much larger, geographically dispersed, group.
In 1998, Project PA initiated an SFS Master Instructor Program to provide this local-level training. Twenty-eight SFS directors were recruited by the Pennsylvania Department of Education to serve as master instructors on the basis of their knowledge and experience of school meals programmes and the quality of their own programmes. Master instructors make a commitment to conduct a minimum number of local-level workshops over a two-year period. They receive a small financial compen sation for each workshop conducted, primarily to cover travel and incidental costs. Project PA develops and delivers one-day training sessions for master instructors, providing them with a training kit - including detailed lesson plans, activity ideas, visual aids, videos, detailed background information and strategies for presenting the educational content - for use at the workshops.
While the initial topics were related to the SMI, training sessions have since been conducted on eleven topics, including nutrients in school meals, marketing school meals programmes, serving students with special needs, childhood obesity and school breakfasts. This programme is ongoing and provides a statewide infrastructure for the dissemi na tion of up-to-date, authoritative information; further topics are decided as new issues evolve. Project PA master instructors have trained more than 4 000 individuals through 162 local-level workshops. Their contributions are highly valued and publicly recognized by Project PA, and they are seen as leaders among their colleagues in the state. In a recent assessment of the programme, master instructors indicated that they were proud to be involved, valued the professional development opportunities the programme afforded and believed that it was meeting the training needs of SFS employees in Pennsylvania.
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A strategy was needed to provide a method for ongoing, rapid com munication with SFS personnel to promote project activities, distribute resources and materials, and provide a venue for SFS personnel to share successful practices with others in the field. The Project PA Web site (http://nutrition.psu.edu/projectpa) was developed to meet these goals.
The Web site's homepage provides links to all current projects. Some of the key components of the site are described below.
The Web site provides a description of the Master Instructor Program, a map of Pennsylvania indicating the locations of each master instructor, and links to individual master instructor Web pages. The individual Web pages provide contact information, a list of topics that each particular master instructor is certified to teach and a small bio-sketch and picture of the master instructor, which serve to introduce them to the Web site users.
Many of the resources developed by Project PA are accessible through the Web site in a variety of formats. Examples include a “Showcase Schools” manual, which documents nutrition education activities that took place at four schools in Pennsylvania as part of a Project PA start-up grant project. This 78-page, full-colour manual was distributed to all school districts in Pennsylvania. The online version allows individual sections to be printed, or the complete manual. Other materials accessible through the Web site include handouts, booklets and PowerPoint presentations.
One of the educational strategies employed throughout much of Project PA's work is the presentation of successful approaches for addressing problems or enhancing SFS programmes or nutrition education activities. The Project PA Web site provides a venue for sharing these model programmes or “best practices.” An online activity reporting form is available through the site; this allows users to submit details of approaches they have found to be successful. On submission, the information on the form is sent as an e-mail message to the Project PA office, where it is used to develop a project description, which is then showcased through the Web site.
An example of how the Web site can be used for rapid communication was its use to publicize and provide application information and forms for the recent Healthy School Nutrition Environments Grant project. A link was provided on the homepage to specific information on how schools could apply for start-up grant funding to assess their nutrition environments and submit action plans to create more Nutrition Friendly Schools. In combination with other recruitment efforts, the Web site contributed to 23 applications being submitted and seven projects being funded.
School meals programmes have proved successful in supporting national nutrition and education goals. However, fulfilling the responsibilities of providing high-quality, safe, nutritious foods to children requires the education and training of many different types of personnel, in a variety of content areas - including food safety, sanitation and storage, foods and nutrition, leadership and administration, and record-keeping. Providing this training to a diverse population, located in concentrated urban centres as well as scattered rural communities, was a challenging task requiring a variety of strategies and methods. Project PA developed a communication strategy based on an array of technological methodologies, ranging from a low-tech, “train-the-trainer” Master Instructor Program, to a promotional Web site, to a series of satellite teleconferences using highly sophisticated technology. Theory-driven educational strategies were developed to complement the communication efforts, specifically drawing on Bandura's theory concerning the importance of role models in the education process.
While not every country has access to the technology required for the communication strategies described here, other methods of communication - such as radio broadcasts, pre-recorded video tapes, scripted or interactive drama or small group presentations - can be utilized to adapt the programmes des cribed in this article. The concepts that were particularly successful were those that addressed the specific needs of the target audience, those that showcased successful programmes and practices and those that used precise, accurate, relevant and compelling training materials in a “train-the-trainer” programme. By using an array of communication strategies and education methodologies, training objec tives for school meals programmes can be met successfully.
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References
Bandura, A. 1986. Social foundations of thought and action. Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey, USA, Prentice-Hall.
Martin, J. 1999. History of child nutrition programs. In J. Martin & M.T. Conklin, eds. Managing child nutrition programs: leadership for excellence, pp. 29-85. Gaithersburg, Maryland, USA, Aspen Publishers.
Pennsylvania Department of Education. School districts (available at http://www.pde.state.pa.us/k12/cwp/view.asp?a=165&Q=47176&k12Nav=|3453|&k12Nav=|1141|810|; accessed September 2003).
The Center for Rural Pennsylvania. Demographic profiles (available at http://www.ruralpa.org/demo.html; accessed September 2003).
USDA (United States Department of Agriculture), Food and Consumer Service. National School Lunch Program and School Breakfast Program. School Meals Initiative for Healthy Children (7 CFR 210 and 220). Federal Register, 13 June 1995; 60: 31188-31222.
USDA, Food and Nutrition Service. National School Lunch Program - Background and Development. (available at http://www.fns.usda.gov/cnd/Lunch/AboutLunch/ProgramHistory.htm; accessed September 2003).
USDA, Food and Nutrition Service. National School Lunch Program Fact Sheet (available at http://www.fns.usda.gov/cnd/Lunch/AboutLunch/faqs.htm; accessed September 2003).
