Appendix 8
AQUACULTURE AND RURAL DEVELOPMENT IN LESOTHO

by

S. Mashapha, Fisheries Research Officer
T. Matobo, Rural Sociologist

1. INTRODUCTION

Lesotho has an area of 30 355 km². It has a subtropical climate. In addition to the latitudinal position, the climate is also influenced by the country's high altitude, 1 530 m. In general, there are moderately hot summers and cold winters. The mean annual air temperature is area-specific and varies from about 5°C to about 15°C with the higher areas having the lowest mean annual air temperature. Though sometimes irregular, most of the rain falls during early spring to late autumn. The mean annual rainfall is mainly determined by the topography, and varies from 500 mm (rainfall shadow) to 1 600 mm for the lowlands; the average is 600–800 mm.

In Lesotho, aquaculture is a very recent practice dating back to 1964. The activities are so far concentrated in the lowlands which constitute only 20 percent of the total area of the country. The species being cultured are of the warmwater type: this means that production is limited to the summer months.

2. STATUS OF SMALL-SCALE AQUACULTURE

Aquaculture production in Lesotho is on the average 20 t/year. The industry consists of small farms which are either individually or communally owned. Chondoma (1986) categorizes fish production systems in Lesotho into:

• rural fish-pond associations

• individual private farms and

• public reservoirs

Under the rural fish-pond associations there are 132 ponds with a total water surface area of 30 ha. Most of the ponds are small, having a size range of 0.05–0.4 ha. These ponds were constructed by manual labour under the Food-for-Work Programme. This production system involves 29 villages all of which are in the lowlands. Initially these farms were owned by all the villagers residing in a particular village.

The schemes experienced a serious management problem because of the “tragedy of the commons”. Fish-farmer associations were formed to alleviate the problem. Some schemes benefitted from this attempt and are doing quite well though with other schemes the problem still persists.

Farmers' perception of aquaculture as a secondary activity poses another problem. Aquaculture is given a low priority in farming activities; for instance, there is a competition between aquaculture and crop-farming. Farmers prefer to engage in crop-farming activities and only when they are free can they resort to aquaculture.

In this production system, individual returns are minimal since the profits have to be shared among many people. This is the case even where pond production is profitable. Because of minimum returns and lack of incentives, some farmers decide to quit fish-farming.

Fish production in the rural fish ponds involves monoculture of common carp (Cyprinus carpio). Because of the low productivity usually experienced in monoculture systems, Peleg (1980) recommended polyculture with grass carp (Ctenopharyngodon idella) and silver carp (Hypophthalmichthys molitrix). The practice is still at its experimental stage. It is hoped that this production system will raise the present yield (800 kg/ha). Under this system, the farms are individually owned. It involves ten farmers who have either ponds or dams on their land, and the total area is 10 ha. It is difficult to judge how many ponds are involved in this system since some of them are very small.

Individual farms were started in compliance with Government policy of stimulating and encouraging the private sector to invest in the production, processing and distribution of fish and ducks. Output under this system is not yet well known but the management is relatively greater than in the village associations and the production is higher. The major problem is the high capital investment needed for pond construction. The Lesotho Agricultural Development Bank, which finances most of the agricultural sectors, does not at present offer credit facilities for fish-farming, and as a result some farmers cannot afford to extend their ponds.

Another production system is that of public reservoirs Chondoma (1986) estimates the total area of reservoirs suitable for fish production to be 200 ha. At present only 15 ha is utilized. The reservoirs are stocked extensively and intensively depending on the circumstances. The two main objectives of this system are to promote both sport and commercial fishing through licensing and stimulate the private sector to invest in the harvesting, processing and marketing of fish (Chondoma, 1986). This production system is likely to be more prominent in the development of the Lesotho Highland Water Project (LHWP). Lack of fingerlings for stocking the reservoirs and reservoir inaccessibility tend to be the constraints with this system.

Almost all the fish produced in Lesotho comes from aquaculture. Most of the fish marketed in Lesotho is sold fresh at the pond side. Chondoma (1987) reported that over 70% of the fish produced is sold this way. The remaining 30% is either sold fresh by the farmers, or taken by the Fisheries Section to be sold for the farmers. The fish is sold either whole, filleted or minced. Processed fish is sold fresh or frozen depending on the buyer's demands. The prices of fish, though not controlled, depend on the prices of frozen fish sold by the frozen food chains from South Africa. This in turn is determined by the forces of demand and supply. Processing techniques such as smoking/drying are not practised on any significant scale. This is mainly because the supply of fresh fish is much lower than market demand.

In economic terms, the present monoculture of common carp has proved unprofitable (Peleg, 1980). Recently, some pilot schemes have been selected where ducks are integrated with monoculture of both common carp and African catfish Clarias gariepinus under the fish-cum-duck project. Initial results have show this system to be profitable.

3. STATUS OF SMALL-SCALE FISHERIES

The capture fishery is not well documented. In previous years fishing licences were enforced for tourists. This made it impossible to know the number of people who were fishing and the amount of catch. Fishing in Lesotho is at the moment restricted to hook-and-line. This restriction on the type of gear is mainly because most fish stocks cannot be sustained if other types of fishing gear are used. Though boats are probably not restricted as long as the correct type of gear is used, they are not common; and almost all the fishing is done from the shore.

Most of the species have been introduced. The common carp was introduced into some South African rivers and is now present in the lowlands of Lesotho. Largemouth bass (Micropterus salmoides) and smallmouth bass (Micropterus dolomieu) were introduced in the lowland dams for angling purposes. Chondoma (1987) gives details on the introduction of these species. According to him all of them have maintained sustainable populations. In addition to these introduced species, there are six indigenous species that grow to a reasonable size to be able to provide fishing, namely: smallmouth yellowfish (Barbus holubi), largemouth yellowfish (Barbus kimberleyensis), orange river labeo otherwise known as mudfish (Labeo carpensis), mud mullet or moggel (Labeo umbratus), sharptooth catfish (Clarias gariepinus), and rock catfish (Gephyroglanis sclaten). The distribution of these fish in Lesotho and the growth were documented by Chondoma (1987).

4. SOCIO-ECONOMIC PATTERN OF SMALL-SCALE AQUACULTURE

As discussed earlier, aquaculture in Lesotho can be categorized into three production systems which determine ownership. Farmers are of low to middle income. There is no hired labour to do the work; farmers are managers as well as labourers on their farms.

Like many other agricultural activities, fish-farming in Lesotho is done by women. Over 80% of the members in fish-farmer associations are women. The same women are also responsible for other activities and so they cannot devote all their time to fish-farming.

Subsistence farming is predominant in Lesotho. Staple crops such as maize, wheat, sorghum and legumes hardly meet the country's demand. In 1983/84 production of maize and wheat contributed about 38% respectively to the national supply of grains (Chondoma, 1987). It should, however, be noted that this shortage might have been a result of a period of drought, 1981/82–1983/84.

5. SOCIO-ECONOMIC OF RURAL POPULATIONS IN GENERAL

(a) Population

In 1985, Lesotho's population was estimated to be 1.5 million with 783 000 females and 736 000 males (United Nations, 1985). More than 80% of the population live in the rural areas. According to the United Nations (1985) 46% of women are the agricultural labour force. Population growth rate for the period 1980–1985 was 5.79 which means that the Basotho still have large households. Demographically poor people tend to have many children due to various reasons, one of which being security at old age. Usually a majority of poor people live in the rural areas.

(b) Family Structure

The Basotho are homogenous in terms of language and culture in general. Like in other African societies, men and boys occupy the highest position in the family. They make major decisions concerning livestock and other activities which culture prescribe as male-dominated. They have to be consulted when major activities are to be practised within their farms.

This is the case whether they are present at home or absent working away from home or even working out of the country. They occupy this position irrespectively of whether or not they are the bread-winners of the family. On the other hand, women and girls occupy the lowest position in the family. They make day-to-day decisions which do not involve the selling of livestock for instance. Only decisions which are short-term, and prescribed by culture as female domain fall within the woman's sphere of influence. A married woman is a dependent of her husband. According to Safilios-Rothschild (1982) being economically independent does not make her autonomous as far as land ownership is concerned.

(c) Main Economic and/or Subsistence Activities

Agriculture is the most important sector in the economy, with more than 80% of the population depending on it. Most of the households derive part of their income from crop or livestock farming or both. They practise mixed farming. Almost every rural household has a vegetable garden or a backyard. Only 13% of the country is good farming land. Percentages of households without cropland have increased from 8.5% in 1960 to 12.7% in 1970. In the 1980s it is estimated to be 15%. The crops most commonly grown include maize, grain, sorghum, wheat, peas, beans, potatoes and sunflowers as well as fodder crops (Cropping Guidelines for Lesotho, 1981).

Investment in grazing livestock is the main form of private investment in the agricultural sector. Some 70% of the rural households own cattle, sheep and goats but the numbers are far from being evenly distributed. The average rural household derives 80% of its income from off-farm sources. Livestock-rearing is the main activity in the mountain region with about 75% of the total land area used for grazing. Sheep and goats are more suited to the country, producing wool and mohair. Women engage in mohair-weaving.

Migrant workers frequently tend to invest their earnings in livestock, valuing quantity more than quality, and thus contributing to overstocking problems. Culturally a man's wealth is measured by the number of animals he has (and those who go to the mines aspire for this). His prestige in society is also enhanced by the more livestock he has.

Apart from the selling of livestock products as well as field crops, women have communal gardens where they grow and sell vegetables communally and share profits.

[The damage caused to rural life by the 1987 snow and heavy rain disaster still has to be calculated.]

(d) Ownership and Access to Land

Culturally the land belongs to the nation while individuals have use rights. Under customary law only men can be allocated rights of using the land and their sons can inherit such rights. With the new Land Act, land can be leased which enables individuals to use it as collateral for obtaining a bank loan. The concept of communality of land ownership still exists and is being reinforced by the chieftainship. Land is both a national and social asset to be utilized for the benefit of the people. The King holds the land in trust for the nation (Kingdom of Lesotho Second Five-Year Development Plan, 1975–1980). This concept has been frequently blamed for land degradation in Lesotho.

Theoretically, men should have enough land to support their dependents. Practically this does not hold true. Due to population growth, land shortage has continued resulting in an estimated 15% of households remaining without arable land (Kingdom of Lesotho, Third Five-Year Plan 1980–85, p. 4). The following table shows land distribution in Lesotho.

DISTRIBUTION OF LAND IN LESOTHO

Source: 1970 Census of Agriculture Report

(e) Employment, Un-or Underemployment

Lesotho's economy is tightly bound to that of South Africa. Its economic and political policies are determined by those of South Africa. Its land-locked situation has created a dependency which cannot be eradicated or even reduced in the very near future. It is estimated that between 60% and 70% of Lesotho male labour-force are at any one time employed as migrant labourers (Van de Wiel, 1977). Basotho men still migrate to the mines and industries of South Africa. Women engage in illegal migration since the South African Influence Control measures will not allow them to migrate.

In Lesotho, commercial agriculture is very rare making rural employment almost non-existent apart from the local activities in which women engage. Jobs are generally limited throughout the country. Un-employment and under-employment are evident. Some of the agricultural products which women sell are seasonal, abundant at one time and not at another.

With such a high percentage of rural men working as migrant labourers either in Lesotho towns or in South African mines, women are left behind to perform all household and farm duties, which they cannot do efficiently. They manage between 60% and 70% of the farms in the country (these women include widows, divorcees and in some cases, deserted wives of men who never returned from the mines). Retired old men or the disabled and boys are left behind to cultivate the fields, even those on steep slopes, using ox-drawn equipment.

Research has shown that there is a positive relationship between crop yields and gender of the farm manager. Male-headed households report higher production levels than those headed by females. More research has to be conducted on aquaculture activities to know if the same is true. It is also important to understand the decision-making process in aquaculture development. All these will contribute some form of employment to the rural communities.

(f) Formal and Non-formal Organizations

The Basotho have many organizations which have been established either voluntarily by villagers with common interest or by government ministries with specific purposes. There are agricultural associations which include wool and mohair producers, poultry-farmers, fish-farmers, dairy products, communal gardens, farmer cooperatives, as well as village councils. There is also a Credit Union League which gives credit to members. There are burial associations which members adhere to for specific reasons.

(g) Education Levels of Rural People

Generally, the educational levels of rural people are low compared to the urban population. This is because, at the primary level, education is Government subsidized and hence there is 100% pupil attendance. At secondary and post-secondary levels, education is not subsidized. Parents have to pay for their children's schooling. Here, enrolment declines since parents cannot afford to pay. In 1980 for instance, in the whole country, post-secondary enrolment was 1.3 thousand females and 0.9 thousand males (United Nations, 1985). The educational levels are reflected in the number of labourers migrants to South Africa, who usually have a low educational level. Those with a higher education move to towns to look for sedentary jobs.

High education is usually correlated with high income and better nutritional status. In the rural areas, the educational level is low, resulting in low incomes accruing to the families and hence low nutritional status. There is no correlation between good house furniture which miners aspire for and the nutritional status of the families. Rural people eat more carbohydrates than proteins. This results in a poor health status in the rural area.

6. GOVERNMENT ADMINISTRATION AND INSTITUTIONS FOR AQUACULTURE DEVELOPMENT

Within the Ministry of Agriculture there are departments and divisions which are responsible for designing and implementing agricultural programmes to effect agricultural policy. Within the divisions there are sections which carry out individual specialized projects. The Livestock Division, like other divisions, has sections of which fisheries is one. The Fisheries Section is solely responsible for the coordination and implementation of fisheries activities including aquaculture. The operating costs of this section, with the exception of a few projects, are controlled through the hierarchy.

Bureaucratic procedures have to be followed for the disbursement of funds. The Lesotho Government is responsible for the success of this section, which is included in the annual national budget.

7. DEVELOPMENT PLANS

The current draft of the five-year development plan 1986/87–1990/91 calls for an increase in annual fish production from the current 20 t to 60 t, and duck production from 10 t to 80 t. Specific objectives to meet this goal are:

• Rehabilitation of the existing ponds. It is estimated that about half (10–15 ha) of the total pond area in the rural fish ponds is under production each year. Problems preventing other schemes or ponds from being productive are either organizational, maintenance or water availability. The five-year plan aims at putting all the schemes under production.

• Construction of new fish ponds. Emphasis will be put on the private sector and individual farmers to invest in medium-and large-scale commercial fish-farming. Commercial fish-farming in the highlands will be promoted especially after the commissioning of the Lesotho Highlands Water Project (LHWP).

• Fish production in reservoirs. The total area of reservoirs considered suitable for fish production (200 ha) will be stocked extensively and intensively to promote commercial and sport fisheries. In addition various suitable production systems will be considered for these reservoirs.

8. PROBLEMS AND PROSPECTS FOR DEVELOPMENT

Problems related to aquaculture planning and implementation have been identified as:

• inadequate training at the national level

• inadequate aquaculture infrastructure

• inadequate administrative support

• socio-economics

• financing and credit availability

The three most important problems are:

• Inadequate training at the national level. Aquaculture production in Lesotho is low because of this. Farmers have to be trained in aspects of aquaculture, hence there is a need for a national aquaculture centre. Senior Fisheries Officers would need to arrange exchange visits in order to learn new technologies which could be modified to suit local levels of aquaculture.

• Inadequate aquaculture infrastructure. The Government fish hatchery in Maseru is the only one responsible for the production of fingerlings for the whole country. The total size including the new extension is 5.32 ha. Besides being small, the hatchery lacks facilities such as good holding house and laboratory. Because of this problem, each year, the hatchery is not able to meet the demand for fingerlings. It should be noted that other factors such as predation by birds and frogs still contribute to the slow supply of fingerlings.

• Financing and credit availability. As stated earlier the main problem inhibiting the fast development of private farms is the high-capital investment needed for pond construction. Donor agencies are usually more disposed to sponsor groups of people rather than individuals. The Lesotho Agricultural Development Bank which accommodates individual farmers does not include fisheries projects in its programme which makes it almost impossible for an interested individual to start fish-farming.

Prospects for aquaculture development include:

• Improvement of rural incomes as well as the nutritional status or rural people.

• Promotion of commercial aquaculture for increasing employment nationally.

• Promotion of tourist industry through sport fishing.

REFERENCES

Chondoma, E.C. 1986 The Status of Aquaculture in Lesotho SADCC Regional Aquaculture Workshop. Kariba, Zimbabwe, October 1986

Chondoma, E.C. 1987 National Review for Aquaculture Development in Africa: Lesotho (in press)

Fisheries, 1985. 1987 Fisheries Annual Report

Kingdom of Lesotho. 1970 Census of Agriculture Report. Maseru, Lesotho Bureau of Statistics

Kingdom of Lesotho, 1980–1985 Third Five-Year Development Plan

Makhanya, E.M. 1979 The use of land resources for Agriculture in Lesotho. National University of Lesotho

Muller, F. and L. Varadi. 1986 A report on fish-cum-duck culture development in Lesotho. FAO/TCP/LES/4509 (T)

Peleg, I. 1980 A report on the inland fisheries development of Lesotho. FAO/TCP/LES/8905 (M)

Safilios-Rothschild. 1982 “The persistence of women's visibility in agriculture: Theoretical and policy lessons from Lesotho and Sierra Leone”. Center for Policy Studies Working Papers

Van de Wiel, A.C.A. 1977 Migration wage labour: Its role in the economy of Lesotho, Mazenod, Lesotho: Mazenod Book Center

Appendix 9
AQUACULTURE AND RURAL DEVELOPMENT IN SWAZILAND

by

Z. Hlanze, Rural Sociologist
J. Msibi, Fisheries Officer

1. INTRODUCTION

Swaziland is divided into four ecological zones: Highveld, Middleveld, Lowveld and Lubombo. Like other Southern African States it has distinct summers and winters. Temperatures and rainfall vary according to these ecological zones. The country has sufficient water, particularly in the high- and middlevelds.

The Fisheries Section in the Ministry of Agriculture was established in 1972, under the Department of Agriculture and Extension. The Department has a director under whom are Heads of Sections. There is a Fisheries Assistant Officer who is responsible for the promotion of aquaculture in each of the four regions; an activity which he carries out through the extension service. The establishment of the section was prompted by a nutrition council which showed there was undernutrition amongst children. Chronic under-nutrition reaches highest levels among children of 18–23 months and remains high also in later years. On the other hand acute undernutrition is identified in only 0.9% of rural and 0.6% of semi-urban areas.

The section has three fish hatcheries, two located in the highveld (Mbabane and Mdzimba Fish Hatcheries) and one in the lowveld (Nyetane Fish Hatchery). These hatcheries are not operational. The two hatcheries in the highveld were meant for coldwater fish and Nyetane Fish Hatchery for warmwater fish. The highveld hatcheries are without facilities. The warmwater hatchery was destroyed in 1984 by the cyclone Domaina. Fingerlings from these hatcheries were distributed and stocked to farmers' ponds free of charge.

2. SOCIO-ECONOMICS OF RURAL POPULATIONS IN GENERAL

There are three types of land tenure in Swaziland, namely:

1. Swazi Nation Land which is held by the King in trust for the Nation

2. Title Deed Land which is privately owned and

3. Crown Land which is Government-owned

On Swazi Nation Land people live in homesteads and/or households. In broad terms, a household is one farming unit. In simple terms, in a household there is only one kitchen. A homestead is the largest residential unit and consists of several farming units; there can be as many kitchens as there families are in a homestead. Be it either a homestead or household, there is only one head of the unit under whose direction all activities are conducted.

The main economic activity of rural families is farming crops and livestock mostly at subsistence level. Off-farm employment is normally sought by the menfolk of the family and more often than not this serves as the main family income.

Every farmer on Swazi Nation Land has free access to land for agricultural purposes, although he does not own the land in legal terms. The income level of the rural people is low. The literacy level is about 89%, one of the highest in Africa.

3. STATUS OF SMALL-SCALE FISHERIES

Swaziland is blessed with rivers and dams (reservoirs) which are evenly distributed throughout the country. There is hardly any fishing in these dams so far. The Ministry needs to conduct fish surveys to ascertain if the fish densities in the reservoirs will support commercial fishing and also to identify the fish species available.

4. SOCIO-ECONOMIC PATTERN OF SMALL-SCALE AQUACULTURE

The individual fish-farmer on Swazi Nation Land uses family labour in his day-to-day farm work. If there is hired labour it is on a daily basis or for a very short period. In most cases on Title Deed Land there is hired labour.

Almost all farmers on Swazi Nation Land practise mixed farming, which offers more security for the farmers. The distribution of labour therefore is not even. Since aquaculture is still considered a minor enterprise, labour is allocated to it mostly when the peak season of the main crop is over. Since aquaculture is on a subsistence level, income is negligible.

5. STATUS OF SMALL-SCALE AQUACULTURE

There are 100 family ponds scattered in the four regions of the country. The majority of these ponds are on Swazi Nation Land, but there are farmers also on Title Deed Land. The number and size of their ponds on Title Deed Land are unknown. As opposed to farms, on Swazi Nation Land, one speaks in terms of homesteads, the average size of which is 2.75 ha. Due to lack of means of pond construction and ability to manage ponds, the size of a fish pond recommended to small farmers is 200 m². The size of present ponds ranges from 100 to 200 m².

The species used are common carp (Cyprinus carpio) and tilapia (Oreochromis mossambicus). Since 1984 the section has been using only tilapia because Nyetane Fish Hatchery, where carp was produced, was destroyed by the cyclone Domaina. Since tilapia is highly prolific, most of the ponds are overcrowded, and thus stunting is prevalent. Total production and productivity are not yet recorded.

Aquaculture is basically at subsistence level both on Swazi Nation Land and Title Deed Land, except for one or two farmers on the latter. No marketing systems have been established. The non-availability of credit to fish-culturists is one reason for the subsistence level of production.

6. GOVERNMENT POLICY AND PLANS FOR RURAL DEVELOPMENT AND SMALL-SCALE AQUACULTURE DEVELOPMENT

The Government of Swaziland encourages self-help projects through the Community Development Section. Rural communities are encouraged to do the work themselves with minimum assistance from the Government.

The policy of the Government towards small-scale aquaculture is stated as follows: “The purpose of the Section is to encourage the rearing of fish in private ponds, rivers, dams and lakes so as to develop an additional source of protein in the population and to increase incomes”.

The Government is also committed “to promote the rearing of fish by providing services to farmers in the construction of fish ponds, the stocking of ponds and extension advice on the rearing of fish”. It is also committed to expand hatchery facilities for the production of the required fish. The Ministry is attempting to rehabilitate the Nyetane Fish Hatchery (lowveld).

7. PROSPECTS AND CONSTRAINTS FOR DEVELOPMENT

Positive factors are:

• Although the Swazi people are not traditionally fish-eaters, the majority of the population has cultivated an interest in eating fish. This is evident by the response displayed by farmers to culture fish.

• Marketing of fish: a few farmers have shown interest in commercial fish-farming. They are encouraged because it is felt that there will be no problems with marketing; potential buyers being hotels and supermarkets which import fish.

• Nutrition: Swaziland is in short supply of animal protein; when it is available, it is expensive. Fish could provide the rural people with animal protein; aquaculture could contribute to the nutritional goal.

Problems for development:

• Aquaculture and Agriculture. There is a great need for research on the integration of aquaculture systems into existing agriculture systems in a manner which encourages the broad participation of small-scale farmers.

• Lack of knowledge about suitable species. Research is needed on the introduction of new species that will thrive better in Swaziland. The two fish species used currently are not the best.

• Lack of trained aquaculturists. The country's higher institutions offer no fisheries courses so qualified personnel are not available. Training of the Fisheries Assistant Officers in the Regions to diploma level would raise the quality of service rendered to the farmers.

• Credit facilities are not available to small-scale farmers, making it impossible for them to take up farming for commercial purposes.

Appendix 10
AQUACULTURE AND RURAL DEVELOPMENT IN ZIMBABWE

by

S. Chimbuya, Chief Ecologist (Fisheries)
E.T. Shonhiwa, Agriculture Extension Officer (Fisheries)

1. INTRODUCTION

The main sources of fish in Zimbabwe are the capture fisheries and aquaculture. With the growth of capture fisheries levelling off since the 1970s there is growing awareness that aquaculture would be an important source of employment, income and nutrition for rural populations. The development of aquaculture started with the introduction of exotic species in dams and rivers. The major species introduced were bass (Micropterus salmoides), trout (Salmo gairdneri, S. trutta). Tilapia rendalli was introduced in 1973. The Zambian variety was introduced in 1959 and 1961 in Lake McIlwaine and Lake Sebakwe. Aquaculture was initially geared towards sport fishing which is gradually being replaced by culture of fish for food production.

On the commercial level a number of projects have been implemented (trout farms, bream farms, prawn farms, some using modern techniques as sex reversals and artificial spawning).

The development of rural fish-farming has been slower. A few aquaculture projects date back to the early 1970s. Rural aquaculture in family ponds has been reported from all over the country in irrigation ponds for vegetable gardening. These ponds have been stocked with tilapia (Oreochromis mossambicus, O. macrochir and T. rendalli and catfish Clarias gariepinus).

2. STATUS OF SMALL—SCALE FISHERIES

Zimbabwe is a landlocked country and has few natural water reservoirs. The water systems are the network of rivers and a few swamps and pans. The need for water for irrigation, domestic and industrial use has resulted in many dams being built. These have been stocked and are being fished.

The harvesting of impoundments is done by commercial fishing companies, fishing cooperatives and some individual fishermen. The total number of fishermen is difficult to estimate since, besides licensed fishermen, there is a vast number carrying out unlicensed fishing. The total number of licensed fishermen is between 1 500 and 2 000.

The types of fishing boats used range from dug-out canoes to wooden and fibreglass boats. Most of the unlicensed fishermen use rubber tubes for setting their nets. The total number of boats is 800–1 000. The main gear used are gillnets and seine-nets. Most of the fishing on the dams is with gillnets. The authorized mesh sizes are determined by the size of fish. For the larger size fish in Lake Kariba the allowed mesh size is 4–7 inches. In smaller dams 3.5 inch mesh sizes are allowed. The licensed seine-nets are allowed to use mesh sizes down to 1 inch. Illegal fisheries are carried out with traps, hessian sacks, and wire traps.

The estimated catch is 5 000 t/year. The main species are T. rendalli, O. mossambicus, O. macrochir, O. andersonii, O. mortimeri, O. placidus. The cyprinids of importance are Labeo altivelis, L. cylindricus and common carp (Cyprinus carpio). Of the Barbus species B. marquensis is of commercial value. The major catfish is Clarias gariepinus: On the larger dams there is a more diverse fish population, tigerfish being the major species.

3. STATUS OF SMALL-SCALE AQUACULTURE

There is a general lack of reliable data on small-scale fish-farming in communal areas. The total number of fish-farmers is roughly estimated to be between 2 000 and 3 000. The only available data collected systematically are from Murewa District with 600 fish-ponds. In Shamsa District there are about 200 ponds. The number of ponds is increasing in Guruve District, some have been constructed in Buhera and communal fish-farming is taking place in the irrigation scheme in Masvingo and Midlands Province.

The ponds are generally small in size (10 × 10 m), with a depth of 1–2 m. The main function of the ponds is the storage of water for vegetable gardening. The systems used are semi-intensive. Most of the ponds cannot be drained. However, in some instances as at Murambinda Irrigation Scheme, ponds with proper inlets and outlets have been constructed. The ponds are fertilized with chicken and cattle manure. Wastes from different agricultural crops are being used besides waste vegetable matters either as compost or as direct feed for the macrophytic species like T. rendalli.

Water enriched by the faeces from fish is a valuable source of nutrients to vegetables. The marketing of fish from the communal ponds is of no significance, since production is mainly for subsistence. The value of fish-farming is thus the contribution of animal protein to the producer's diet Fish may, however, be sold when there is a surplus production. Also some farmers allow neighbours to fish with hook-and-line in the pond for a nominal fee.

Small-scale fish-farming is usually organized as a family operation integrated with vegetable gardening. There are a few cases when dams have been built by groups of families. These dams are usually fenced to ensure that cattle does not destroy the dikes. Women work together to build these ponds and share management tasks.

4. SOCIO-ECONOMICS OF RURAL POPULATIONS

(a) Family Structure

It is recognized that historically the Zimbabwean family in traditional society operated as an economic unit engaged in subsistence agriculture, with patterns of division of labour based on sex and age.

In shifting cultivation systems men cleared the land, built shelters and hunted while women performed tasks such as planting, weeding, harvesting, food storage and processing. Young men herded livestock while girls assisted their mothers by fetching firewood and water as well as helping with child care and other household activities. Thus, the adult males were responsible for the development tasks of the community while the women were involved in mostly routine tasks.

The nature of women's participation in agriculture was determined by land tenure within the patrilinear kinship system.

In the traditional Zimbabwean society men maintained their dominant position through the ownership of means of production. Women on the other hand exercised influence on food production on the basis of their labour input.

A newly married woman had little or no social status. She was primarily valued for bearing children. However, her standing within the family and community increased with the size of her family.

(b) Main Economic and/or Subsistence Activities

Agriculture has been and will remain the backbone of the economy as envisaged in the first Five-Year National Development Plan (1986–1990). Seventy percent of the population lives in rural areas where farming is the major economic activity. In addition, agriculture is the largest national employer of labour accounting for 25% of the national formal employment of just over one million. Agriculture accounts for 41% of the national merchandise export.

A notable feature in Zimbabwe's economy is the increase in the peasant's degree of market participation above subsistence production. This is shown by peasant's share of crop sales to/through marketing boards.

(c) Ownership and Access to Land

To understand the pattern of ownership and access to land in Zimbabwe it is important to take into account the character of the colonial process which led to extensive land alienation with the peasantry being peripherized and confined to more marginal lands.

With a growing population the peasantry could not sustain its farming system which thus led to land deterioration. The land issue was further aggravated by the following acts:

• The land apportionment act which was reinforced by subsequent policies depriving the peasantry of good farming land.

• The land husbandry act (1921) was passed so as to control the land use practices and ownership norms with the hope that the displaced landless would engage in industry.

To redress effects of the colonial regime resettlement has been identified as one of the major programmes. In this respect the Transitional National Development Plan launched a programme geared to resettling about 16 200 peasant families. To date 3 600 families have been resettled on 2 million ha of land.

The land acquisition act (1986) will facilitate the intensification of the resettlement programme by improving land availability.

(d) Employment and Underemployment

The decline in economic activity which occurred in the first two years of the Transitional National Development Plan inevitably led to a decrease in total wage employment. The decline in employment in the productive sectors for the two-year period was 1.2 percent annually. In the service sectors, however, employment continued to grow at the rate of 2.9 percent. The problem of unemployment was aggravated by the fact that more than 85 000 youths entered the labour force each year as a result of population growth.

The main causes of growth in unemployment were the decline in the economy's labour absorptive capacity which resulted from economic difficulties of three successive years of drought and recession. This was aggravated by enterprises shifting from labour-intensive to capital-intensive techniques of production on account of wage increases.

(e) Education Levels

In 1980 education was made free and the earlier inequalities in the provision of education services between rural and urban, between men and women, were considerably reduced.

The result has been rapid enrolment at both primary and secondary levels. Enrolment in primary school increased from 820 000 in 1979 to 2 229 396 in 1985. Secondary school enrolment increased nearly sevenfold during the same period from 66 000 to 479 766. Enrolment in teacher training rose from 3 500 to 15 250. Expansion of the education system which was primarily extension of education service to the formerly neglected communal areas, necessitated an increase in the number of trained teachers.

In addition informal education (such as correspondence and adult literacy) was expanded. The adult literacy programme is being vigorously implemented in the rural areas where the illiteracy rate is high.

5. GOVERNMENT POLICY AND PLANS FOR RURAL DEVELOPMENT

The Government of Zimbabwe in its development policy has stressed that rural masses be involved in the whole rural development planning process. Hence Local Government structures such as Village Development Committees (VIDCOS), Ward Development Committees (WARDCOS), and District Councils were instituted to facilitate planning and decision-making at lower levels. These plans are then incorporated into the plans of central Government.

The emphasis by Government on development of rural areas is intended to reduce the differences existing between the urban and the rural. In allocation of resources (both financial and human resources), priority is given to rural areas. As a result there has been increased production of key crops by peasant farmers.

The rural development plans also emphasize land reform and efficient utilization of land. This involves equitable distribution of land in order to establish viable resettlement schemes and increase agriculture production. During the Five-Year Development Plan 15 000 families with 100 000 dependents will be resettled each year.

Establishment and development of small-scale industries will be encouraged including cooperatives and self-employment schemes.

Development of irrigation settlements, reclamation of river catchments, consolidation of villages and block-farming are major strategies in the communal area re-organization exercise. These activities are being undertaken during the Five-Year Development Plan with a target of 20 000 families a year. In addition to agriculture-based activities, public work schemes such as construction of access roads, bridges, schools, clinics and irrigation are being implemented.

6. GOVERNMENT ADMINISTRATION AND INSTITUTIONS FOR AQUACULTURE DEVELOPMENT

There are six fisheries research stations in Zimbabwe. These stations perform research of an ecological and aquacultural nature, provide management services for the established fisheries and provide fish seed as well as extension services.

1. The Lake Kariba Fisheries Research Institute is primarily involved in the research on the ecology and impact of fishery activities on Lake Kariba. There is little involvement in aquaculture research activities. There is, however, laboratory equipment in the form of aquaria and concrete tanks where aquaculture research work can be done.

2. Lake McIlwaine Research Centre

   This station's main function is to carry out ecological and aquaculture research. The station has 20 fish-ponds which are about 400 m² each. Water is supplied from the lake by use of diesel and electric pumps. The centre is also a centre for the supply of fish fingerlings, especially tilapia and bass. Some work has been done on production of all male hybrids. Experimentation on use of fertilizers and use of different feeds have been done and the emphasis of research is to understand the culture of tilapia. Trials have also been carried out for cage and pen culture, and integrated fish-cum-duck culture.

3. Lake Kyle Fisheries Research Station

   This station is designed to monitor aquatic ecology of Kyle Dam. The station functions as a research centre for tilapia and bass culture. It is a station geared to the provision of fish seed to local farmers. Bass-breeding has for some time been a principal function. Work on hybrids, use of manures, etc., has recently been the subject of research programmes.

4. Matebeleland (Bulawayo Research Station)

   This is mainly an extension station. There are no facilities for research work except for a laboratory with a few aquaria. There are no fish-ponds for field experiments. Work involving the management and utilization of fish resources in the province is in progress.

5. Matopos Research Station

   This station is mainly restricted to research and monitoring of aquatic environments within the Rhodes Matopos National Park. The main work is research on the major fish species. Work on aquaculture has been done before using some earth ponds.

6. Sebakwe Research Station

   This station caters for the Midlands Province; it is mainly geared for extension services to communal farmers who operate at different irrigation schemes. The station also does monitoring and survey work on different aquatic ecosystems in the Province.

7. Nyanga Trout Research Station

   This is situated in Rhodes Nyanga National Park. It is mainly geared to the production of fingerlings of trout (rainbow, brown and brook). The fingerlings are stocked into dams and rivers within the Park. Fingerlings are also available for farmers. The station carries out research, especially experiments on different dietary requirements and disease control. The station, however, is principally established for provision of angling fish.

8. Henderson Agricultural Research Station

   The station is run by the Department of Research and Specialist Services of the Ministry of Agriculture

7. GOVERNMENT POLICY FOR SMALL-SCALE AQUACULTURE DEVELOPMENT

The Government is determined to diversify food production especially at the rural level. As in other production sectors, like agriculture, emphasis is being made to maximize production of fish from the small-scale fish-farmer. The aim is to ensure self-sufficiency in food with some surplus for sale. When local communities are encouraged to produce their own protein, the overall burden of Government importing fish or ensuring equitable distribution is reduced. When family units for aquaculture are established, the protein level per caput will be increased. The overall policy of Government is to encourage the setting-up of communal projects either at family level, cooperatives or at village (community) level.

To achieve the goals of each family producing their own fish as with chickens, a massive extension programme is envisaged. The development plans are to ensure that aquaculture extension personnel are stationed in all eight provinces of Zimbabwe. These should disseminate aquaculture information and give guidance on vital information on site selection, species selection, and pond construction, etc. The plans also envisage the training of low-level aquaculture extension workers, technical officers and scouts.

The development emphasizes the importance of availability of seed. Ideally, each of the eight provinces should have a seed production and distribution centre.

The other major aspect of the development plan is to utilize all major sources of water and irrigation schemes for the production of fish. Thus wherever new dams are being constructed, plans are developed to establish new stations for research, extension and fingerling production.

One major development plan in Zimbabwe is the Mtilikwe National Aquaculture Centre, intended as a demonstration, training, research and fish seed production centre.

One community-based aquaculture development plan is the Nyanga Rural Aquaculture project. the project will involve the construction of community and individual ponds. Support services will be provided by the Department of National Parks and Wildlife Management. This is a pilot project in the community-based development of small-scale aquaculture. Similar small-scale aquaculture projects will be drawn up with the assistance of the Department of National Parks and Wildlife Management. It is hoped that Non-Governmental Organizations will also assist in the funding of small-scale projects in aquaculture.

8. PROSPECTS AND PROBLEMS

Positive aspects of aquaculture development are:

• People's attitudes: There is interest in aquaculture in rural communities.

• Zimbabwe is a landlocked country and many impoundments have been constructed for generating electricity, irrigation and for domestic use. This means that a vast resource of water was made available. Each Province and District has several such water resources from which each community can benefit. Although these dams are for irrigation purposes they serve as important nuclei for the fishing industry in Zimbabwe. This also reduces the problem of developing infrastructure for food distribution since each community can produce its own food.

• The water resources are readily available with over 8 000 large and small dams in the country.

The main constraints to small-scale aquaculture development are lack of finance, lack of trained manpower and lack of seed production centres.

The development of aquaculture in the rural areas requires the setting-up of a number of small pilot projects. Funds are inadequate to cover requirements.

Another constraint is the lack of seed production centres. The unavailability of fish seed for the different localities makes it difficult for would-be small-scale fish-farmers to start. Presently most fingerlings are being supplied from McIlwaine and Kyle but a considerable quantity has to come from wild sources. It is hoped that some fry production centres will be set up in each province and ultimately perhaps in each district.

The available staff catered for pre-independence activities of five stations with little coverage of the communal lands. The staff now has to cover the whole extension and research requirements for the country. They need further training to be able to carry out aquaculture research and extension.

Appendix 11
AQUACULTURE AND RURAL DEVELOPMENT IN MALAWI

by

O.V. Msiska, Senior Fisheries Research Officer

1. INTRODUCTION

Malawi is a small country covering an area of about 118 000 km² and an estimated population of 8 million (1986).

The economy is dependent on agriculture which employs 85% of the total labour force and contributes 35% to the GDP. Export trade relies on tobacco, sugar and tea; products which are controlled by formal or informal export quota arrangements and offer restricted scope for value added production.

Although statistics are difficult to obtain, it is estimated that fisheries contributed 4% to the GDP in 1983 having registered rapid growth in the late 1960s and 1970s. It is also the most abundant and cheapest form of animal protein, contributing in the order of 60–70% of all available animal protein. Even after heavy investment in motorized and mechanical fishing during the 1970s, the small-scale sector accounts for 88–90% of total production and, thus the production sector closely resembles that of agriculture. Still comparatively small in total production, the economic significance of fish-farming has yet to be understood although it was shown that properly established fish-farming could generate 2–3 times more income from a given plot of land compared to alternative crop production (Beveridge and Stewart, 1986).

The presence of abundant water resources and reliable rainfall patterns favour small-scale irrigation and water conservation for multipurpose use including fishing and fish-farming. Past reports by Msiska (1987), Msiska and Nongwa (1985) indicate a higher than average potential for fish-farming which has yet to be realized.

General economic indicators show that it is necessary to diversify production and generate enterprises which have potential for import substitution in Malawi.

Nutritionally, the high infant and child mortality (275 U5 MR), stunting (low height per age) and wasting (low weight per age) suggest endemic malnutrition especially among children and women (UNICEF, 1987). Despite a relatively high average fish supply per caput (9.28 kg in 1983 and 9.9 kg in 1986) malnutrition is still evident reflecting uneven distribution patterns. The supply can be as high as 50 kg/year/individual along the lakeshore and as low as 5.2 kg/year in the Northern Region.

2. HISTORICAL BACKGROUND

Rural fish-farming is believed to have been started in the early 1950s by Colonial Fisheries Officers. Outstanding efforts made by Belgian officers in some Central African States such as Congo spread to East and Central Africa, including Malawi.

Efforts faltered considerably between 1960 and 1970 in Malawi for various reasons. This period also witnessed increased research effort on the fisheries of the Great Lakes where substantial catches started to be landed. While the relationship between the natural fishery and fish-farming appears to be cyclic the two are related closely and trends reflect Government effort and concentration. As has been the case in agriculture the recognition of a sector in national development through technical and financial inputs results in great benefits to the sector (Table 1).

Table 1

INDICATORS OF PERFORMANCE OF AGRICULTURE BEFORE AND AFTER INDEPENDENCE IN MALAWI

(After E.K. Clark, 1978)

Incentives to produce more must be commensurate with attractive prices for the commodities. The recent increase in fish prices at main markets and high gross margins (66.7–500%) on fish sold away from the landing sites should encourage production on sites and assure the producer good returns. If adopted by Government, recommendations made by the EEC-funded Fisheries Development Strategy Study, emphasizing fish-farming development, should spur increased effort.

3. PRESENT SITUATION

3.1 Policy and Planning

Fish-farming is included in the general policy statements of the Fisheries Department which are as follows:

1. to manage the fisheries of natural waters of Malawi such that the optimum sustainable yield is obtained

2. to foster the establishment of a stable and economically viable fishing industry through the development of the activities of the present fishing community

3. to assist the efficient landing, processing and distribution of all fish caught and to ensure that achievement of maximum landing is not hampered by lack of marketing facilities

4. to encourage, where appropriate, fish-culture as a means of supplementing supplies of fish from natural waters

5. to protect Lake Malawi and other waters endemic fish fauna as a scientific and educational asset

6. to manage the exploitation of crocodiles in Malawi so that:

   1. human life is not put at undue hazard

   2. the development of fisheries is not hampered

   3. a maximum sustainable return, in value of skins exported compatible with (a) and (b) is achieved

   4. the crocodile is preserved from extinction in Malawi

3.2 Fish Production

The total fish production in Malawi fluctuates between 60 000 and 70 000 t. The contribution of fish-farming is small ranging from 0.1 to 0.2%. The production is almost equally shared by the commercial and small-scale sectors; however, reliable statistics from the latter are difficult to obtain.

Since about 1981, the number of ponds in the Southern Region has increased substantially. Mwanza District has about 400 ponds, Zomba 70, Mulanje 73, Tyolo 5, Blantyre/Chiradzulu 5 and Ntcheu/Dedza 29. Statistics are more easily available for Mwanza and Zomba because of proximity to extension stations at Domasi and Kunenekude. Although not quantified, emerging from this group are a number of progressive fish-farmers whose profiles are characterized by a significant level of income from fish sales as exemplified by Chitonya farm of Zomba District (Table 2). Apart from practising integration with crops (bananas, sugarcane, vegetable, etc.), these farmers produce their own fingerlings (achieving a kind of vertical integration) of Oreochromis shiranus chilwae and Tilapia rendalli. Those who raise mirror carp obtain fingerlings from Domasi Fisheries Station.

A preliminary sociology survey by Banda (1987) funded by ICLARM shows trends which have long been suspected. Farmers are keen to expand fish-farming but land-availability, inadequate water and lack of knowledge of the technology are major constraints. The former may be less of a problem in the Northern and Central Regions while the latter can only be rectified through a more effective service. It was also noted during the study that the use of manure and compost are becoming widespread dispelling the old belief that manure would be directly consumed by fish and thus impart off-flavours to fish. The aesthetic value of such fish was thus low and unacceptable. Inavailability of manure and cheap feeds were further constraints in rural pond management.

Commercial operators depend to a large extent on flexibility of the type of feed they use to sustain high production as shown by the fish-farm owned by the Sugar Corporation of Malawi (Table 3).

Table 2

COST/REVENUE ESTIMATES OF CHITONYA FISH-FARM, ZOMBA

(After Msiska, 1987)

Table 3

(After Msiska, 1987)

3.3 Dams and Reservoirs

In a recent Fisheries Development Strategy Study renewed emphasis has been given to management of dams and reservoirs for fish production in addition to their other uses. This has been assisted by data in a recent report (Msiska, 1987) which show high production from artificial impoundments. Differences among the various dams must be related to edaphic characteristics arising from physical structures, nutrients from the watershed and temperature. On the other hand, dams could be a source of irrigation water for fish-ponds, and communities around these should be encouraged to operate viable fish-farming. Before this can succeed, however, the ownership of these dams must be established and maintenance guidelines instituted. Lack of maintenance has resulted in most of the 700–800 reservoirs recorded by Balarin (1987) being rendered unfunctional. As a result in a recent irrigation study only about 309 have been located which could be put to immediate use. Farmers' experiences of ponds being washed away by flood may be mitigated by installing properly designed dams to moderate floods and provide a round supply of water. However, investment into irrigation dams may not be justified on an individual basis, thus a community-based approach may be most appropriate.

4. SUPPORT FACILITIES

The support facilities and staff in fish-farming are based in the Southern Region which is supplied by 75% of all the fish caught in the country. Since extension has succeeded in attracting farmers in the south it is a pointer to success in the other two more fish-deficient regions.

The Domasi facility offers scope for extensive experimentation into fish-farming, especially after the current expansion programme funded by IDRC, ICLARM and EEC is concluded.

Kunenekude (in Mwanza) forms a satellite station with 2 or 3 ponds for multiplying fish seed for farmers and demonstration. It is also a base for extension assistants to serve the area with technical advice. Kasinthula Fish Farm (about 21 ha) is currently the largest Government farm established by UNDP/FAO for estate type farming. It serves the nearby SUCOMA with fingerling supply and other technical backup.

It is anticipated that in the EEC-funded project there will be another station at Mzuzu to investigate cool water aquaculture and two or more satellite stations for extension.

5. FUTURE DEVELOPMENTS

5.1 New Fish Ponds

It is obvious that fish-pond farming will continue to be the most common form of aquaculture. Opportunities for pen culture exist in reservoirs and lagoons but these are areas with an already adequate fish supply. For fish fetching premium prices (i.e., Oreochromis squamipinnis, O. saka, O. lidole, Labeo mesops, Opsaridium microplepis, etc.), pens and cages may be a feasible proposition in the near future. In general, the area presently under aquaculture is very limited and needs to be expanded.

5.2 Fish Production in Irrigation/Conservation Dams

As mentioned in a previous section, the stocking of dams and reservoirs had been discontinued due to the general malaise which affected fish-farming. Harvest and fishing data show that this might be worthwhile and attract community-based aquaculture. Ownership of these dams rests with either Government or village chiefs.

5.3 Increasing Fish Yields at Higher Altitudes

While it has generally been considered that the tropics are warm, due to topography most areas removed from lakes are cool. Fish species native to these regions have no commercial value (Haplochromis spp., Barbus spp.), thus there is need to find acceptable fish species. In Malawi this is one of the bases for proposing a five-year EEC-funded project in the Northern and Central Regions.

5.4 Polyculture of Indigenous Fish Species

Like many countries in Africa, especially along the Great Rift Valley, Malawi has many indigenous fish species which are worth preserving either for food, aquaria or as an educational asset. Most of these remain untested for pond-, pen- or cage-farming. Before decisions are made to introduce and probably contaminate the existing wild genetic stock, the culture of local fish species must be tried. In Malawi only Oreochromis shiranus chilwae, Tilapia rendalli and Clarias gariepinus have received attention.

5.5 Integration of Agriculture/Fish-Culture Extension Services

Fish-farming extension like that of agriculture devolves from the training and visit system that has been successfully applied in agriculture. A natural interface with agriculture is inherent in successful systems developed in Southeast Asia. Recycling of animal manures and other farm byproducts are a basis for this integration. In Malawi, considering the infancy of fish-farming extension, merging with agriculture extension at some stage or level can only mutually help the two farming systems.

5.6 Training of Staff

While in the industrial countries aquaculture is almost entirely commercial, in Malawi and other African countries there is a strong element of the subsistence type. Both require different levels of training either for research or extension. Poorly developed extension programmes are strongly correlated with poor training and lack of exposure to successful systems. Of the extension assistants working with rural communities, those who have a grasp of extension methodology and an appropriate theoretical background always perform better. To rise from the grade of technical assistant to Chief Technical Officer there are four steps, and if no training is offered promotion is difficult and results in loss of interest. There is need for a strong institution to offer hands-on training with affiliation to some college so that recognizable certificates are given to participants to put them at par with their colleagues in the agricultural field.

What is required is some kind of training at two or so steps lower than ARAC (Regional Aquaculture Centre for Africa, Port Harcourt, Nigeria). From this crop of graduates could come farm managers to manage commercial enterprises or senior extensionists.

REFERENCES

Beveridge, M.C.M. and A. Steward. 1986 The Development of Smallholder Fish Farming in Mulanje/Phalombe District and other aspects of Fish Farming Industry in Malawi, University of Stirling, Scotland

Clark, E.K. 1978 National Rural Development Programme. Journal of Social Science (1978/79)

Banda, G. 1978 Sociology of Smallholder Aquaculture in Malawi; A Study of fish farming in Zomba and Mwanza District. Cycl.rep.

Balarin, J.D. 1987 National Reviews for Aquaculture Development in Africa. 12 Malawi. FAO Fish Circ., 770-12

Msiska, O.V. 1982 Aspects of fish culture development in Malawi and its potential economic impact on a rural economy. In Kapetsky, J.M. (ed.) Seminar on River Basin Management and Development. CIFA Tech.Pap., (8); 292–302

Msiska, O.V. 1985 and G.M. Nongwa. Fish Farming for Rural Development in Malawi, Proc. FFRD Consultative Workshop on village level aquaculture development in Africa. Freetown, Sierra Leone, 14–20 February 1985

Msiska, O.V. 1987 Preliminary studies on the Performance of Oreochromis shiranus chilwae in ponds and dams with respect to water quality and temperature. ISTA II, Bangkok, Thailand, 10–20 March 1987 (in press)

United Nations Children's Fund (UNICEF): 1987 Facts and Figures. New York

Msiska, O.V. 1987 Appropriate Aquaculture Technology for Malawi and Research Needs. ICLARM Workshop. “Awareness Programme of Tropical South East Asia Aquaculture Technology”, Chancellor College, Zomba, 21–28 September 1987