4.1 Using SAF to Organise Your Data Into An Effective Work Plan
4.1.1 Linking Objectives and Outputs
4.1.2 Organising Activities and Responsibilities
4.2 Monitoring The Communication Process
4.2.1 Purpose and Rationale of Monitoring
4.3.1 Rationale and Purpose of Evaluation
4.3.2 Quantitative Evaluation: the Baseline Study
4.3.3 Quantitative Evaluation: the Participatory Impact Assessment
4.3.4 Finalising the Overall Evaluation of the Project's Impact
4.4.1 Organisation and Management of the Entire Planning and Implementation Process
This chapter provides you with the tools for organising all your work into an effective and manageable plan of action. It also indicates how to monitor the whole process and evaluate the final results. Finally, the chapter also gives some tips on how to report and present the communication planning and activities.
At the end of this chapter you will be able to:
All the elements needed to draw an effective communication work plan are now in your possession. The only thing you need to do is to put them together in a logical and consistent way. The Situation Analysis Framework (SAF) can help you in this task. In order to make your tasks simple this section has been divided into four units meant to take you gradually, through in the design of the overall work plan.
At this stage you will have already defined all the elements needed to draw up the communication strategy. All you have to do is to put them together and make sure that the way they are linked is consistent with the overall process. We shall use the example of a Nutrition Project to make the process easier to see and understand. The priority focal problem identified in this project is poor feeding practises in children under five years of age.
The related communication objective to be concentrated upon in the development of the communication strategy is raising awareness on proper feeding practises for children under 5 to at least 80% of all the women between the age of 16 and 40 in a particular district.
The next question you should ask yourself is “how can I best achieve this objective?” A solution is not always easy to find right away. Sometimes you might be considering possible solutions for quite sometime as you go through the various steps of the strategy design, before you decide which one would be best. For our example here, this has been decided. On a hypothetical basis, the decision is that the best way to achieve the communication objectives is by accomplishing certain tasks. These are defined as outputs and are formulated in a measurable, tangible way. In SAF these are known as quantitative outputs, and in this case they are:
The next question you might ask yourself is “if I accomplish all of the quantitative outputs will I be sure to achieve the objective?” The answer should be yes, but at the moment, it is no, since it is not only what you do but how well you do it that is important to achieve the objective. For instance, you can successfully complete the training workshop attended by all participants expected, but you could still not achieve your purpose. The participants may not have acquired the necessary skills, or even attitude, to use the discussion tools effectively. In many instances this separation between what has to be done and how well it is done is absent, and the two concepts are considered both under outputs. However in this handbook, for instructional purposes and for the sake of clarity, outputs have been divided into two elements: quantitative and qualitative outputs. These will make it easier for you to first consider tangible and measurable outputs, and then, focus on the expected results of those outputs, which are often ways of measuring the effectiveness of your outputs. In the Nutrition Project example given here, the qualitative outputs are:
In organising the work plan at this early stage you must make sure that the outputs selected can have a direct beneficial effect on the objective. Reviewing every step of your communication strategy that led you to select those outputs can do this. Remember that outputs must be tangible and measurable products. We recommend that you split these outputs into two groups, i.e., qualitative and quantitative ones. The latter group, which is very similar to a unit of measurement, has been added for instructional purposes. It will assist you in refining the quantitative outputs properly while at the same time help you to focus on monitoring and evaluation of the process.
When organising activities like in the case of flip charts, you must first consider the various steps involved in the production of the flipcharts, namely:
For each activity, you must consider what you want to achieve, thus verifying the consistency of the linkage between the activity and the outputs, and what is involved. You should consider the human and material resource needed, the location, the kind of work required and the amount of time estimated to be spent for each activity. Together with your team you must decide who is going to be responsible for each activity. The responsible person does not necessarily have to carry out the activities. Rather he/she is supposed to supervise, co-ordinate and monitor the activities making sure they are performed satisfactorily.
When making preparations for carrying out the plan of action you should consider all the requirements needed to accomplish the specific activities, both in terms of human resources and materials. These requirements are defined as inputs. It is your task to list and account for all needed inputs. Correct estimation of inputs is very important for production of quality work and for drawing an accurate budget, which is supposed to be approved by management of the project. Very often, getting a budget approved is not so easy, but getting a revision of a budget (due to miscalculations or to factors that cannot be accounted for) is even harder. It is therefore necessary to spend a good amount of time going through all the needed inputs for each single activity. In the same way you must be precise in estimating the cost of each input. Estimates for budgeting can be done following several approaches. You can either make an estimate for each expense or put expenses under certain groups or categories such as transportation costs, production costs, stationery for training, fees for consultants, etc.
By now you should have all the elements needed for putting your work plan together. The only element you need to add once you have put all the pieces together is time. You have to provide a feasible timeframe taking into account the time needed to accomplish a particular task, availability of the specialists involved, project's deadlines and, last but not least, the community schedule of activities in the field. Worksheet 2 given on the next page illustrates how your work plan could look like following the SAF format. This should be considered as a guide to provide you with all the elements needed for producing a final work plan in whatever format.
Worksheet 2 summarises the sequence and the steps needed to synthesise all the factors constituting the work plan. Before filling the boxes of the worksheet you should have gone through every step putting them in writing in a narrative form. Start showing why and how you have defined the SMART Communication Objectives (i.e. which focal problems?). Explain the communication mode design you have selected (i.e. Interaction Groups, Communication Approaches, Design Specifications, Media and Activities) and the expected outputs. Detail each activity, specifying the needed inputs, in terms of human resources, materials and funding. Reach a decision about who is supervising what and finally decide the time frame within which the work plan will operate in order to fulfil its purpose. Once this process has been carefully reviewed and agreed upon, you can go to the schematic format of worksheet 2 (page 108), which is summarising all of the above.
SAF in the Organisation of the Work Plan.
| SMART Communication Objectives |
Quantitative Outputs (derived from Communication Strategy) |
Quantitative Outputs |
Activities |
Inputs with est. costing |
Responsibility | Timing |
Putting together all the elements of the work plan also gives you an opportunity to review the whole communication strategy. For each element you are filling in, revise the validity of its existence, the soundness of its purpose and its feasibility. Also revise linkages between each element and the previous one and the next one. Remember that each element of SAF has a causal linkage with the others. Also remember that even if in the work plan outputs come immediately after objectives, they actually are indirectly derived from the objectives (since they were defined through the communication strategy), as solutions to the focal problems. Once all the elements have been accounted for, you are ready to start the implementation phase. Having defined and organised all the elements this far it should be easy for you to manage the whole process. Nevertheless, you still have to monitor each step closely.
Monitoring is the process of establishing checkpoints to make sure that you are on the right track. This means that you must establish a system for recording, on a regular basis, useful information for keeping track of the activities and progress being made towards the set objectives. Whenever something is going wrong, monitoring should provide basis for taking the best course of action to correct the situation. Monitoring is complementary to the organisation of the work plan since it is supposed to identify indicators for measuring the success of the activities and determining the checkpoints to assess the project progress.
The main purpose of monitoring is that of checking and verifying that the planned activities are progressing in a satisfactory way. Monitoring is supposed to provide the necessary instruments for checking the process while it progresses, rather than wait until the evaluation of the final result. An effective monitoring system allows you to have the situation always under control and to take corrective action as soon as it is needed thus optimising time and resources.
What should you monitor? Monitoring should begin as soon as the project is being originated and it should occur in all the phases of the communication process. During the research phase monitoring ensures that the identified community NOPS will be analysed and prioritised appropriately. During the planning phase monitoring provides indicators to closely check the feasibility and the way the project is supposed to progress. During the implementation phase monitoring measures the effectiveness and the relevance of the activities being carried out. It is important that the indicators for monitoring the process be established and agreed upon with the community. This ensures the participatory nature of the programme and avoids differences and misunderstandings in the expected outputs.
The following steps should assist you in planning and conducting the monitoring of the project activities:
How does monitoring occur? First and foremost you need to identify indicators that will serve as checkpoints throughout the whole process. As usual indicators can be easily defined for activities resulting in physical outputs, but they are not so easy to define when dealing with other aspects not physically quantifiable. If in the work plan one of the outputs is to conduct a series of training workshops for at least, 80% of the farmers in the district an indicator is going to be the percentage of people trained. By getting statistical data on the farmers' population and counting the number of participants attending your workshops, you can easily monitor if you are achieving the intended result.
Things are not so easy if you include another aspect dealing with the expected output of the training, such as that of ensuring that all participants get the necessary skills to implement new farming techniques. It is not easy to establish indicators in such circumstances since indicators should somehow measure the level of competence in the new skill acquired by the participants during the workshop.
Similarly monitoring, or evaluating something like the degree of participation in the decision-making process is very difficult? Which indicators can provide an accurate representation of the degree of people's participation in a campaign aimed at reducing the incidence of malaria through meetings and public discussions? Head counting at weekly meetings can be one way, but a very limited one as it does not truly reflect people's level of participation, but rather their presence.
A more appropriate way could be to measure how many people attending the meetings are changing their attitudes, and taking actions to prevent malaria. Establishing indicators often requires identifying criteria for measuring the progress and direction the communication programme is moving to. This is obtained by operationalising the relevant terms or concepts.
Operationalisation is the concrete and specific definition of something in terms that can be measured. It refers to the specifications of the steps (procedures, or operations) needed to identify and measure a certain variable. For instance delinquency can be operationalised as committing an act that violates the criminal law. Cultural differences play a critical part in this aspect. The operationalisation of the term family in most western countries, where the father, the mother and maybe one or two children, compose a typical family is likely to be different from, say, that of most African societies where the extended family, includes father, mother, children, grandfather, grandmother and often uncles and aunts.
When you operationalise a term you are basically answering three questions: what are you going to observe, how are you going to do it, what interpretations are you going to give to what has been observed, or measured. When you put these three questions together, you have your operational definition.
To make sure this concept is clear let's operationalise together the term “economic growth” following the suggestions above.
The example above is hypothetical but it should help you to see that by operationalising a term you are actually defining it as it is and as it can be observed, hence measured. Once this has been achieved you need to identify the indicators. An indicator can be defined as a unit of measurement that provides the needed frame of reference to judge and assess a given situation. In the previous example an indicator could be the financial transactions actually taking place in the community in a certain period of time. A good indicator should have the following characteristics:
Monitoring the planning phase requires indicators for checking the timing of the activities and for verifying the consistency of the actions planned and the logical linkage to each other. Indicators should be identified and defined at the beginning of the communication process, as soon as possible, in order to establish an effective monitoring system. It would be difficult and impractical to monitor every single step of the process. You are thus advised to identify relevant checkpoints that should be assessed to provide the needed monitoring feedback. If everything appears to be going as planned then you can proceed. If not, you should consider the best course of action to correct the situation.
From what has been discussed above you can see that there are two types of measurement: the quantitative and the qualitative. The former is concerned with monitoring the visible, tangible outcome while the latter is concerned with the quality of that outcome. These two types can be used to monitor each phase of the process, namely the research, the communication planning and design, the materials development and the implementation of the activities. At the end of the process the same two types of measurement must be applied to measure the impact of the communication.
Since every indicator needs to be easily measured you have to think of how it can be done. Means of verification have the purpose of ensuring that you can measure objectively the checkpoints you have established, either in the planning or implementation phase. Your task here is that of determining which are the sources from which you can obtain information regarding the set indicators. If you cannot find reliable means of verification you should reconsider your indicators. For instance if you want to monitor the effectiveness of a vaccination campaign and your indicator is the number of people being vaccinated, your means of verification can include clinic reports and statistics from the mobile teams of the Ministry of Health.
In the case of a campaign to increase awareness on AIDS, choosing correct indicators may be more tricky than the vaccination case above, since if you define an indicator as the number of people aware of AIDS you will have firstly to operationalise the term “AIDS awareness” and secondly, you will need to know who was not aware of AIDS before the campaign.
Establishing means of verification involves defining how you intend to measure your indicators. While going through this phase you should ask yourself the following questions:
These questions will help you to define the means of verification necessary to efficiently, and effectively, monitor the whole programming process.
External factors are situations or conditions largely, or completely, outside the project's control that could however negatively affect the final result of the project activities. Do you think it is possible for a project that has been properly designed and accurately implemented to fail completely? Yes, it is. How? By a concurrence of factors outside the project's control. One of the most classic examples is that of a project training a number of people on certain technical skills and once they have been successfully trained most of them resign from the project and accept better paid jobs in the private sector. Another example could be that of a community-based project growing a variety of crops for income generating purposes. Everything seems to go smoothly until a major unexpected flood occurs causing the destruction of all the crops.
External factors could also be formulated in terms of assumptions (necessary conditions or situations needed for the project to succeed) or risks. Assessing possible risks in the beginning of the process helps to minimise those risks or at least to be ready to consider and take into account possible countermeasures should negative external factors occur. A clear definition of external factors is also useful to the management of the project since it helps to clarify the area and limits of responsibility of the project. External factors should be identified and analysed during the assessment and planning phase. If they are very likely to occur, the project should then be redesigned in order to take them into account. For instance, you would not plan to build a hospital in a frequently flooded area. In summary, external factors are very important since they assist management in understanding the boundaries and limits within which the project operates and also because they allow you to prepare a contingency plan should they occur.
So far we have been talking about the purpose of monitoring and the procedures required to establish an effective monitoring system. The Worksheet below is a useful tool that can assist you in this task.
Worksheet 3
Communication Strategy: Monitoring the Work Plan.
| Topics/Results to be measured | Indicators | Means of Verification (for each indicator) | External Factors |
|
Quantitative
Outputs |
When you develop your work plan make sure you have a complete list of expected outputs, activities and inputs (the Objectives will be assessed in the Evaluation Phase). The worksheet on this previous page, assisted by the list presented at the end of section 4.2.1 (Purpose and Rationale of Monitoring) will assist you in compiling a detailed checklist. For each single output of your communication strategy you need indicators to enable you to measure and monitor both the quantitative and qualitative component. You do not need to monitor every activity and every input included in your work plan closely.
However, it does help to monitor some of the most crucial activities as they progress (for instance a training workshop) or some of the inputs (like the timely delivery of needed materials). In some cases, when dealing with the development of communication materials, you need to monitor a number of issues related to the outputs. For instance, if you are developing a series of posters you need to monitor and measure a number of issues such as:
All of the above aspects are part of designing an effective monitoring system, whose main function is to make sure you are on the right track. Remember that involving the community in identifying and defining specific checkpoints in the planning phase will make sure you are considering relevant issues and it will assist you throughout all the subsequent steps of this crucial task.
At the end of the planning and implementation process of each project, it is necessary to evaluate the overall impact of the intervention in order to assess the degree of success or failure. The final, or summative, evaluation has this scope i.e., ability to measure the level of intended change brought about as a result of the project activities.
Once all the activities of the communication programme have been implemented there is the need to see what have been their practical effect in the field. What change was brought about by the communication strategy being implemented? The aim of the final evaluation is to measure the impact caused by the project intervention in relation to the set objectives. This is different from monitoring as an evaluation is conducted mainly for purposes of measuring the final results of the entire process, rather than the progress of the project. A project that does not evaluate, properly, the results of its activities cannot be of any use for eventual duplication of experiences met. Evaluation is not only useful to assess how well the strategy worked but also for assessing how it has benefited the community. It is only a valuable instrument for assessing the effectiveness of the strategy implemented if it can be eventually improved, adapted and utilised in other projects and programmes.
In this handbook the summative evaluation has been divided into two types just like it was done for monitoring: quantitative and qualitative. The former is concerned with objective, verifiable measurement related to the project objectives. The latter, instead, measures the degree of success of the project activities as perceived by the community. The two should ideally coincide, but this is not always the case. In case of sharp differences between the two different evaluations you might consider investigating why this should happen. If the quantitative evaluation, in the form of a baseline study, shows that the project successfully reached its objectives while the participatory assessment indicates that people do not perceive any benefit from the project, you need to look into the matter. There could be a number of reasons for the disparity, e.g., the objectives of the project were not the right ones for the expected solutions, or the perceptions of the problems between insiders and outsiders were radically different. Whatever the reason, the final evaluation is supposed to give you a comprehensive and consistent picture of the results of the project intervention.
Change cannot be measured in absolute terms, this is to say that, if you want to measure accurately the impact of your project, you need to measure the situation before and after your intervention. If you want to know how far you have walked over a distance, you need to know where you started. The difference between the point of arrival and the starting point will give you the distance you have covered. Similarly, in your communication programme you need to measure first the level of awareness or knowledge before implementing the strategy. After having implemented the activities of your communication strategy you will measure again the level of awareness or knowledge. The difference between the two levels will give you a clear indication of the degree of change brought about by the communication activities (assuming there are no significant external factors).
By now it should be clear that in order to assess the degree of change brought about by the communication intervention, you need to have a starting point against which to measure any eventual change. The baseline survey mentioned at the beginning fulfils this function. As the word baseline suggests, it provides objectively verifiable data necessary to show the quantitative dimension of the problem to be addressed, thus providing the needed term of reference. Traditionally baseline surveys are conducted before any other activity of the programme has started in order not to bias the results.
In the Action Program, however, the baseline survey takes place after the PRCA. This innovation has been adopted because very often the area measured by the baseline in the former situation is always different from the priority areas identified with the community. A baseline survey carried out before a PRCA would for instance, try to measure the AKAP on building VIP latrines when in actual fact the real problem was that people did not see the need to have VIP latrines. In such a case the baseline should really be measuring factors affecting the AKAP concerning health and hygiene. The baseline would be more useful after the PRCA, even if it is at the risk of having some data contamination. In this way the baseline is more likely to measure exactly the priority areas of specific relevance. Furthermore it can also be used to validate and confirm the PRCA findings, besides quantifying them.
In chapter 5 of the PRCA handbook, there is a guide on how to design a baseline survey. At this point of the strategy you should remember that you have to evaluate the impact of the project activities through a post-implementation baseline survey compatible with the baseline carried out during the field research. Even if the baseline is only part of the overall summative evaluation (Participatory Impact Assessment is the other major component) it is a very important part, since project management, donors and international organisations are usually very sensitive to accountable, sound figures. The baseline survey should provide scientific, tangible and verifiable hard evidence showing that the communication intervention has brought some significant improvement.
Quantitative evaluation may be objective and scientific but in some cases it may overlook the most important issue in development: the human factor. The degree of satisfaction of the community should be equally important as the rate of adoption of a certain innovation, even if it is not so easy to assess. Participatory Impact Assessment - PIA - is supposed to measure the perceptions of the results of the communication intervention and the degree of satisfaction of the community. PIA, unlike the baseline survey, is not concerned with measuring objective scientific results, but the impact of the project as perceived by the community. Ideally the two should be consistent with each other.
The impact assessment is carried out through a series of participatory techniques and tools similar to those used in the PRCA. In evaluating the project impact you have to make sure that the community identifies in advance the indicators for the problems that are to be addressed (usually originating from the problem tree) jointly with the project staff. In this way you are sure that the objectives are appropriate and relevant for insiders and outsiders, i.e., the community and the project staff. Using participatory techniques and tools, your team and the community, have to go through the following steps:
Based on the above questions, you could also make a plan to make sure that the evaluation activities are carried out properly. The purpose of PIA is to make sure that the evaluation is not a theoretical exercise for a few experts but a comprehensive measurement that includes the community's perceptions and concerns. Once the “what are you going to evaluate” has been defined you and the other members of the evaluation team need to decide how. Go to the PRCA toolbox in the PRCA Handbook, and use the most appropriate techniques and tools designed to involve people in the whole process (from choosing appropriate indicators to assessing the final result).
Once the quantitative and qualitative evaluations have been carried out, the results should be combined to form a comprehensive study, assessing the results and the change brought about by the communication intervention. The major point you should keep in mind, when you present the results of the evaluation, is to show what has been the direct benefit/improvement that has been caused by communication. If you write a specific report on the evaluation of the communication component (or even of the project) you could follow a number of formats. The one usually used in the Action Programme is divided into six major areas as outlined below:
Needless to say, you can adopt whatever format you feel confident with when presenting the findings of the evaluation. The important thing to remember is that you must always consider whom your audience is. When you present findings consider the most important points you are to put across. Here again SAF as given below, can assist you in organising your findings.
Worksheet 4
SAF in the Evaluation of Communication Impact.
| Topics/Results to be Measured | Indicators |
Means of Verification |
External Factors |
|
Quantitative
Evaluation |
The project and the communication objectives are not the only elements that can be evaluated. You might also be interested in evaluating a specific technology, social processes or the level of participation enjoyed by the project, even if these may not be directly considered in your objectives. You should therefore also be aware that the evaluation, even if it is done at the end of the whole process, is not necessarily the very last activity of the project. Based on its findings and recommendations, the project could be extended in order to take corrective measures to further improve the final outcome. Further corrections, modifications or adaptations suggested in the evaluation could be considered in order to improve the effectiveness of the strategy implemented when, and if, a similar project is to be replicated in other circumstances.
At this point most of the job appears to have been done. What remains, is to assemble the various stages of the strategy and verify them in a systematic way. In this chapter you will discuss how to prepare and present a feasible and manageable work plan. Remember that it is not enough to make a good work plan. You have to convince management, and all other interested parties, that your proposal is appropriate, cost-effective and most of all that it is needed to solve a major problem.
You are now at the end of the process of communication strategy design that originated from your work in the field. All you have to do now is to assemble all the pieces, double-check each one of them and verify the way they are linked to one another. To assist you in checking the whole process follow and revise the points outlined below:
If you have revised these elements you are in a comfortable position to organise and supervise the whole process. However you should remember that, as in all human activities, in all communication strategies, the human factor plays a predominant role. This means that creativity, as well as unexpected variations should be borne in mind. Your planning and supervision should therefore be flexible enough to allow changes as you proceed towards the accomplishment of the objectives. This is especially true as you are adopting a participatory communication strategy design people will be assessing, taking decisions, carrying out activities with you. More people might mean more ideas and often more time spent to reach a consensus on the best course of action. This is part of the approach. Remember that you are not there to tell people what they are supposed to do, but to find out with them what should be done and why. Communication can then go to the next step and facilitate the achievement of the set objectives.
Managing and supervising the communication component requires close following up of all activities that should be checked according to the set indicators and the provided timeframe. You should also have room for some flexibility. If you have already accounted accurately for external factors it is going to be easier to draw contingency plans as the need arises. The more careful and comprehensive your work plan is the easier and more effective it is going to be to supervise and manage the activities planned and to accomplish the set objectives.
When you write your report about the proposed communication strategy, and its rationale, you must make sure to include all relevant factors, while avoiding being too long or spending too much effort in explaining details of each step you went through. There are many ways to write and present a report. Each of them could be equally effective. You should choose a format you feel most comfortable with. Always keep in mind the person it is intended for. The following is a suggestion of what to include in your written report:
When you present your strategy do NOT spend too much time on details and background information, however interesting and relevant they might seem to you. If somebody wants to know more, they can read the report or ask you a question at the end of the presentation. Focus on the issues and problems in question, on the findings of your work and on proposed solutions. Remember that if you want to convince the management, or other agencies, to fund your project you need to convince them of two things above everything else. Firstly that the problem presented is a serious one (presenters tend to assume that it is already a known fact, when often it is not) and secondly that your strategy will effectively assist to eliminate or reduce the problem.
Many presentations fail to achieve the intended results just because the presenter tries to include everything in its presentation. Remember that when you prepare for the presentation you should have in mind your listeners, among them focus your attention on the decision-makers, and concentrate on the more important issue only. Also try to use visual aids to make your presentation more lively and interesting. There are many ways you can organise the presentation to the management. Whatever format you choose to use, remember to be straight forward and up to the point and most of all be logical and show all causal links. That is, first illustrate the problem, supporting yourself by data, then illustrate how it can be addressed and why. If you perform effectively these three steps you are almost there. Do not worry if in your presentation you leave out most of the work you have carried out and methodology you have used so far, you can always present these during follow up questions. The objective of your presentation should be twofold. Firstly to convince your audience that the problem you are addressing is a major one (which needs to be solved before all others) and secondly that the strategy you are proposing will eliminate or greatly reduce the problem. In the following page you will find a list of dos and don'ts about the presentation. So please pay attention to them.
Table 6
The Dos and Don'ts about Preparing a Presentation.
| Do not start your presentation with general statement or background information. | Start your presentation with a strong statement, illustrating the crucial issue and refer to it throughout the presentation. |
| Do not make a long elaborate presentation. People have attention time span and tend to lose concentration fast. | Try to keep your presentation short (less than 30 minutes) and up to the point. Eventually bring out more information during the follow up questions |
| Do not get up and start to read your paper in a monotonous way | Diversify the tone of your presentation, emphasise important points, use visual aids and keep eye contact with the audience |
| do not get worried about including everything you have in your presentation | Stick to the most important points, which stem from your field findings |
| Do not end your presentation in a rushed way | Reinforce the main point in your conclusion, if possible with a dramatisation or a provocative statement |
| Do not make your presentation as if you were the audience | Shape your presentation having in mind the portrait of the audience i.e. what do they know, what do they need to know, what is their background, ect. |
