Pre-and post-tsunami coastal planning and land-use policies
and issues in Thailand

Nittharatana Paphavasit¹, Cherdchinda Chotiyaputta² and Siriwan Siriboon³

With regard to pre- and post-tsunami coastal planning, as well as land-use policies and issues in Thailand, the relationship between coastal resources and the quality of life and livelihoods of small-scale fisherfolk is reviewed. The impacts of tsunami disasters on the demographic, socio-economic and ecological conditions of coastal communities are examined, as well as coastal resource rehabilitation efforts that have taken place and how they have affected coastal communities. Case studies apropos post-tsunami impact assessment for coastal resources and coastal communities are provided.

1. Background

1.1 The pre-tsunami status of coastal resources in Thailand

The Thai coastline extends 2 815 kilometres along the Gulf of Thailand and Andaman Sea in 23 provinces. The total maritime area in Thailand is about 400 000 square kilometres. The country has a rich and diverse coastal ecosystem — mangrove forests, coral reefs and seagrass beds are the three most important coastal features and sandy beaches, mudflats and estuarine areas are commonly found. Marine natural resources are very important to the Thai economy, in partic    ular fisheries production both for local consumption and for export. Due to population and economic pressures on the coastal zone, these valuable coastal ecosystems have been primary targets for development. Human activities, shrimp farming in particular, industrial expansion and tourism have contributed to the alarming degradation of coastal resources. These activities have exerted pressures on the sustainable capacity of these resources and the marine environment. Open access to coastal resources is the most important underlying factor for overexploitation and thus, multiple-use conflicts over marine resources are inevitable. Important areas of concern include commercial capture fisheries/small-scale fisheries, shrimp farm expansion, degradation and decline of mangrove forests, coastal tourism and related waste disposal, mineral exploitation, coastal road construction, port development, oil spillage and environmental degradation.

Human activities lead to environmental anomalies such as: 1) changes in species composition and diversity; 2) changes in coastal productivity and production; 3) changes in marine food webs; and 4) increased coastal pollution. Impacts from these activities initiate sequences of environmental changes that, in the long term, affect coastal productivity and diversity. The new equilibrium may be similar or different from the original, depending on coastal characteristics and processes as well as the degree of coastal utilization. Integrated coastal zone management has been introduced as a mitigatory effort in several provinces.

Coastal habitat degradation is the major contributor to the decline in coastal fisheries. The mangrove forests of Thailand have experienced three major periods, namely pristine forests until 1961, a transition period involving mangrove degradation until 1996, and a subsequent period of mangrove restoration. The pace of mangrove degradation in Thailand has been quite rapid. The depletion rate during the 35 years from 1961 to 1996 was approximately 5 723 hectares per year, or a total area of mangrove depletion amounting to 200 305 hectares. Forest clearance and land reclamation for aquaculture, especially for shrimp farms, urban settlement and industrial sites, have made significant impacts. Most of the existing mangroves are deteriorating, with the few exceptions of mangrove reforestation/afforestation sites; these sites are used to counter the rapid pace of mangrove degradation (Paphavasit et al., 2005).

An assessment of the status of coral reefs based on the proportion of live to dead coral cover in Thai waters (Phongsuwan et al., 2006) indicated that several reefs were in excellent condition along both the Gulf of Thailand and Andaman Sea coastlines. Ineffective control of widespread destructive fishing, tourism and recreational activities are the major disturbances to coral reefs. Natural disturbances such as storms and monsoons, coral bleaching and infestations of the Crown-of-Thorns starfish (Acanthaster planci) are also important factors. Seagrass beds, found in 19 of the 23 coastal provinces, cover an area of 104 square kilometres, with greater coverage on the Andaman Sea coastline. Major human-induced influences on seagrass beds are push-net fishing, wastewater discharge from shrimp farms and domestic and industrial pollution.

Diminishing environmental quality also poses another threat to coastal fisheries productivity. Coastal water quality at several monitoring stations is reported to be in a degraded or severely degraded condition. Organic enrichment in coastal waters is evidenced by occasional phytoplankton blooms (red tides) and hypoxic conditions in coastal sediments. A beach quality index has been developed for beaches apropos assessing aesthetic and water quality. Most beaches are in a good condition, but coastal erosion is worse in the Gulf of Thailand than along the Andaman Sea coastline. More than 485 kilometres of the Gulf’s coastline are classified as suffering from severe erosion of 5-20 metres per year. Severe erosion occurs on approximately 114 kilometres of the Andaman coastlines (Office of Natural Resources and Environment Policy and Planning, 2004; Chotiyaputta, 2005).

Currently, marine fishery resources are in a poor state with a decline in quantity and numbers of species. Coastal aquaculture production increased between 1992 to 2002. In 2002, coastal aquaculture output was approximately 534 500 tonnes. However, the value of aquaculture output significantly declined from THB⁴68 572 million in 2001 to THB56 639 million in 2002. The shrimp farm area decreased from 480 881 rai⁵ in 2001 to 464 881 rai in 2002. This was somewhat compensated for by an increase in shellfish cultivation and fin fish farming (Office of Natural Resources and Environment Policy and Planning, 2004).

Mangrove deforestation has pronounced impacts on fishing communities. Increased coastal erosion resulting from vanishing mangrove areas has forced many fishing households along the coastlines to move further inland for resettlement. Hinterland migration has accelerated in recent years and accessible coastal land areas are becoming scarcer and more expensive. Due to this constraint, very high-density fishing communities occur on the coastlines. This is a good indicator of poverty in fishing communities (Siriboon, 1998; Suwannodom et al., 1999; Suwannodom et al., 2000). The degradation of coastal ecosystems, declining fishery production and conflicts of interest among commercial and small-scale fisheries impact negatively on the daily lives of fisherfolk. Small-scale fisherfolk are the most affected by mangrove degradation and the concomitant decline in fishery resources, as they are dependent on mangrove forests. They are well aware of how the changes in these forests affect them and realize that mangrove reforestation/afforestation contributes to a better quality of life (Suwannodom et al., 2004). People who receive direct benefits from the mangrove forests, in particular fisherfolk, are more prepared than others to participate in rehabilitation programmes (Siriboon, 2000). Changes in mangrove productivity will be the major factor for sustaining fishing communities and their livelihoods. In turn, the prosperity of the fishing communities will provide a good indicator of coastal productivity.

A number of stakeholders have made integrated efforts to help combat declining coastal resources and to sustain the fishing community. However, there is a need for cooperation in conservation and rehabilitation activities. Public awareness and participation in coastal resource conservation and rehabilitation are important internal driving forces to sustain coastal resources. In this regard, community-based management has been introduced for managing coastal resources in the context of fishery management and coastal rehabilitation.

1.2 The background of the tsunami-affected areas

The 2004 tsunami generated death and destruction in six coastal provinces on the Andaman Sea coastline of Thailand, which have a total population of 1.9 million. The tsunami-affected 25 districts, 95 tambons (subdistricts) and 407 villages, of which 47 were almost completely destroyed. Phang-nga and Krabi provinces were the most severely affected areas with 4 225 and 721 deaths recorded respectively. Phuket, being a primary international tourist attraction recorded 279 deaths. Satun and Trang provinces had the lowest casualties. The most important occupation in these coastal provinces, except for Phuket, is agriculture — contributing 40 to 50 percent to the Gross Provincial Product (GPP) (Table 1). In Phang-nga Province, the agriculture sector contributes more than 50 percent to the GPP. The fishery sector contributed up to 26 percent to the GPP in 2000; this declined to 14 percent in 2004. Agriculture is also the major occupation in Ranong Province, the smallest province in southern Thailand. In Ranong, the fishery sector contributed more than 25 percent to the GPP. Phuket’s economy, on the other hand, is reliant on the tourism sector. Income from tourism in this province generates the highest GPP in southern Thailand. Tourism contributions to the GPP of other coastal provinces are also increasing.

Table 2 shows the changes in pre-tsunami land use in the six provinces along the Andaman coastline. Pararubber and permanent crops are the two most important agricultural activities in the area. Rice and vegetables/flowers/ornamental plants are next in terms of importance. Phuket has the least area in terms of agricultural land. Phang-nga and Krabi provinces have extensive areas of forest plantation. Pasture, livestock farms and freshwater aquaculture (fish cages and ponds) increased in number towards 2003. Industry has a minimal role in these provincial economies.

Table 1. Pre-tsunami GPP (THB million) in six provinces on the Thai Andaman coastline

Table 2. Changes in pre-tsunami land use in six provinces on the Thai Andaman coastline (area in rai)

Changes in the pre-tsunami tourism sector in the six provinces are shown in Table 3. The number of tourists and excursionists was on the rise, in particular in Phuket, Krabi and Phang-nga. More than two-thirds of the visitors in Phuket and Krabi were foreigners. The number of hotels and hotel rooms was increasing in all six provinces.

Table 3. Changes in the pre-tsunami tourism sector in six Andaman coastline provinces in Thailand (tourists — visitors that stay overnight; excursionists — visitors that do not stay overnight)

1.3 Why is integrated coastal management in Thailand a challenge?

Coastal utilization in Thailand is the responsibility of multiple government agencies: fisheries are the responsibility of the Department of Fisheries; port development and shipping belong to the Marine Department; mangrove forest and other marine resources are the purview of the Department of Marine and Coastal Resources (DMCR), and so forth. These agencies have developed their own regulations and modes of enforcement, which occasionally conflict. Traditional management approaches and policies are typically unable to prevent or mitigate the negative impacts of activities and the conflicts generated. Therefore, innovative and effective approaches are needed to address these issues rationally.

Recently, Thailand unveiled the Ninth Economic and Social Development Plan concerning marine resource conservation, which focuses on demarcating protected areas to maintain biodiversity and the equilibrium of the ecosystem, and to restore the fertility of the Thai coastal and marine environment. To achieve the objective of the plan and the vision for the Thai maritime area, the Thai Marine Policy and Restoration Committee (TMPRC) was established in 1996 to manage the use of natural resources and to establish the framework for the use of Thai waters. The committee comprises ministers of the concerned agencies and representatives from many ministries and departments involved. The TMPRC set up the Office of the Thai Marine Policy and Restoration Committee (OTMPRC) to help the committee develop a draft agenda recommending effective policies, strategies and action plans, which should be ratified by all stakeholders through public consultation (also the responsibility of the OTMPRC). Regarding resolution of conflict among users of Thai waters, a National (the existing TMPRC), Provincial and Community Committee should be established, comprising members from public and private sectors. However, as the use of one resource affects others, conflict management mechanisms should be in place.

The 1997 constitution, in particular the Normative Principle for Ocean Governance, makes specific reference to the management, preservation and balanced exploitation of natural resources and the environment in several sections. This was a major breakthrough to mainstream coastal zone management in Thailand. The constitution set out guidelines for the decentralization of resource administration and management to local communities by empowering them with the rights to preserve, rehabilitate and participate in management, maintenance and utilization for sustainable resource management. Government agencies were responsible for supporting and encouraging local communities so they could develop into “learning communities” and properly manage and utilize their own resources.

As part of the reformation of the government bureaucratic system in 2002, the establishment of the new Ministry of Natural Resources and Environment (MoNRE) was another step toward mainstream coastal zone management. The agencies addressing natural resources and the environment were placed under the MoNRE. The main strategies underscore the role of public participation in the preservation, protection, conservation, utilization and rehabilitation of natural resources and the environment. Supervision, monitoring and rehabilitating the environment and mitigating pollution are other strategies. The ministry is also responsible for capacity building and equitable access to natural resources, and also proactive and integrated natural resource management.

The DMCR was established with the major objectives of managing and conserving coastal and marine resources based on good governance, research, monitoring and assessment and rehabilitation and conservation.

Thailand’s National Marine Policy was overhauled in 2003 to improve the efficiency of management mechanisms in order to avoid conflict and promote long-term direction for the future. The policy is now under review and will be submitted for approval by the TMPRC. It is designed to identify effective policies that promote the sustainable development of coastal and marine areas, which will follow an international framework for integrated and holistic management. It will establish a broad framework of planning and management principles for accelerated sustainable development, rational resource utilization, conservation of the marine environment and biodiversity and the preservation of community assets for the benefit and prosperity of present and future generations.

The DMCR’s main objectives and goals are conservation, rehabilitation and management of marine and coastal resources to achieve their sustainability and address social and economic needs. Action has been derived from national policies and guidelines, as well as regional initiatives and international agreements for the sustainability of the marine environment. During 2003–2004, the government launched many measures and allocated a large budget to support learning processes and disseminate knowledge to people, as well as to continuously enhance institutional capacity at all levels. A public awareness campaign for stakeholders, including the building of participatory networks, was also conducted.

The mainstream for co-management is based on ecological principles that promote conservation and sustainable use in equitable ways. Marine Protected Areas (MPAs) constitute marine national parks and fishery sites reserved for specific purposes such as closed habitats and seasons. The DMCR expected to develop and use MPA incentive measures for improving and rehabilitating coastal resources and environmental quality with a target of maintaining 20 percent of the specified area along the coastline within five years. Government agencies and universities cooperate in many fields of studies, research and management programmes. Marine and coastal resources and environmental management are the responsibility of multi-sectoral government agencies, as found in the legislative administration of the coastal area. Boards and committees are set up in order to establish national agendas, guidelines and proactive integration of administrative management. Stakeholder representatives have been nominated as committee members.

As pointed out by Phongsuwan et al. (2005), the DMCR has taken over responsibility for coordinating coral reef conservation and monitoring in Thailand; however, the DMCR, the Department of Fisheries and the Marine National Park authorities all have mandates under different laws to protect coral reefs. There is minimal coordination of activities by national agencies, provincial governments and the private sector in coral reef management. Enforcement is weak due to overlapping jurisdiction and misunderstandings over responsibilities. The major emphasis of marine park management is to support the tourism economy rather than focusing on conservation and regulation enforcement. All of these factors have led to ineffective control of widespread destructive fishing and other injurious practices in coral reef areas that result in the deterioration of Thailand’s coral reefs.

Although the DMCR has the mandate to administer integrated coastal zone and marine area management, it lacks the express legal authority to do so. Coastal zone and marine area activities are exercised by other groups and provincial and local authorities have expanded powers under an ongoing process of government decentralization. In order to enable the sustainable management of coastal zone and marine area resources, regulatory mechanisms must be improved; it must be ensured that communities are involved in planning and decision-making processes for sustainable management and use.

Figure 1. Legislative administration of the coastal zone in Thailand

2. Issues

2.1 The impacts of the tsunami on coastal resources

2.1.1 Mangrove forests

The 2004 Indian Ocean tsunami caused great loss of life and property. Mangrove forests were claimed to have mitigated losses by acting as barriers against wind, waves and erosion. Approximately 2 415 rai (386 hectares) of mangrove forests were reported to have been impacted by the tsunami. Only 89 hectares in Ranong Province were documented as being severely damaged. Mangrove forests in Phang-nga Province were slightly damaged. The impaired mangrove area was small in comparison with the areas of other coastal ecosystems, coral reefs and sandy beaches affected (691 hectares and 992 hectares respectively). However, these impact assessments are based only on physical alterations as shown Table 4. Assessments of ecological functions (i.e. permanent habitats, feeding and nursery grounds) and nutrient transports between mangrove forests and coastal waters have not been conducted.

Table 4. Tsunami impact on mangrove forests on the Thai Andaman coastline (Paphavasit et al., 2005)