2.1 Characteristics of production
2.2 Regional production data
2.3 Production systems and practices
2.4 Producers in the region
2.5 Organizations of producers
2.6 Financial investment by public and private enterprises
2.7 Technical assistance projects in the sub-sector
2.8 Capital assistance projects in the sub-sector
The region as described includes the thirteen countries of South America (Argentina, Bolivia, Brazil, Chile, Colombia, Ecuador, French Guiana, Guyana, Paraguay, Peru, Suriname, Uruguay, and Venezuela) and eight of Central America (Belize, Costa Rica, El Salvador, Guatemala, Honduras, Mexico, Nicaragua, and Panama). This vast region extends from 30°N to almost 60°S and includes every climatic environment from equatorial to almost polar. The geographic environments include a wide range of aquatic resources; inland these include vast watersheds of large rivers, and many artificial and natural water bodies including hiding high mountain lakes; coastally these include long flat tropical beaches, mangrove swamps, and inaccessible fjords and islands. Together with its wide range of aquatic species suitable for culture, the region has all the geographical and biological elements for significant aquaculture potential.
The main objectives and goals set by governments in their efforts to foster aquaculture development have been:
- production of inexpensive sources of protein for local consumption;
- production of fishery products to supply domestic markets;
- creation of employment opportunities and promotion of rural development;
- generation of foreign currency revenue.
Accordingly, culture has either been directed toward more intensive fish production systems to supply high-value products to either local markets or for direct export, or for stocking artificial and natural impoundments for local markets.
Although the region had indigenous salmonid species, North American and European expatriates in the last hundred years introduced a variety of salmonids to the countries of the temperate latitudes (Argentina and Chile) and high altitudes (Bolivia, Colombia, Mexico, and Peru) where water conditions were appropriate. Small hatcheries were built to support the demands of sports fishing and local markets. These countries still produce salmonids, and the interest has increased significantly, particularly in Chile with the re-introduction of the Atlantic and Pacific salmon for both coastal cage farming and ocean ranching in the south of the country.
Semi-intensive farming of marine shrimp in Costa Rica and Panama, and in Brazil, Colombia, and Ecuador, and more recently in Mexico and other Central American countries, which has only developed in the last two decades, was possible originally because of the extensive nurseries for juveniles along the beaches of the Pacific and Atlantic coastlines of Mexico, Central America, and equatorial South America. These resources were used for stocking coastal tidal ponds, but reliance on them has slowly been replaced by hatchery-reared juveniles of introduced species (including freshwater prawns). Recently hatcheries have also enabled development of non-coastal brackishwater areas with ponds and pumped water. The scale of operation of these highly commercial farms requires large tracts of flat land, and therefore investment has been confined to existing land-owners, or companies which have been able to buy private land or to obtain government land for development at concessionary rates.
At the other end of the scale, some forms of extensive fish culture have been traditional in the rural areas of almost every country in the region, but particularly the countries of Mexico and Central America. Both indigenous species (the cichlids and colossomids) and introduced species (tilapias and carps) have been used. Until recently much of this was simple pond management with few inputs, but with the introduction of hatchery technologies stocking programmes organized by national and local governments in natural and man-made water bodies have enabled culture-based fisheries to be established, notably in Brazil and Mexico, both with warmwater species (tilapia and carps) and with cold water species (mainly trout and silverside) in Peru and Bolivia in Lake Titicaca.
The development of cage culture in these and other water bodies also offers potential for increased fish production, but because this system generally involves higher levels of management (including feeding practices), economic, technological, and cultural factors often preclude individual farmers/fishermen from participating in such production systems.
Although statistics do not clearly differentiate aquaculture production from inland fisheries, it can be appreciated that most Latin American countries have made great strides in increasing production of aquatic organisms in recent years.
The specific breakdown by country and commodity group of aquaculture production as defined by FAO, i.e. excluding resources whose ownership is undefined until the time of their harvest, is shown in the following table.
About 18% of regional aquaculture production is finfish (mainly tilapia, carps and native species), 39% is molluscs (mainly oysters and mussels), 38% is shrimp (penaeid species), and 5% is seaweed (only produced by Chile). Production of both molluscs and shrimp has increased since 1986, shrimp production having reached over 70 000 t in 1988 accounting for 20-25% of global production of cultured shrimp.
Commercial aquaculture, in its choice of species and markets, has been influenced by the industrial export-oriented fisheries. Although the production of marine shrimps, salmonids, and algae represents almost 50% of the volume of aquaculture production (1986), its share of commercial value is much larger, and probably accounts for more than 80% of the ex-farm value.
Almost all shrimps and algae produced through culture are exported. This is not true for molluscs or finfish, as only high-value salmon and rainbow trout, and some mussels and oysters are exported. In 1987 about 2 000 t of the two former species of fish were exported, equivalent to about 10% of the volume of finfish produced through culture but only 1% of the total culture-based fisheries. Small quantities of cultured freshwater shrimp and seaweeds were also exported, mainly to Europe and North America. Intraregional trade in aquaculture products (mostly trout) is small.
Aquaculture Production (t) in the Region in 1986
|
|
Fish |
Molluscs |
Crustaceans |
Marine Algae |
Total |
|
Argentina |
460 |
- |
10 |
- |
470 |
|
Belize |
- |
- |
- |
- |
- |
|
Bolivia |
- |
- |
- |
- |
- |
|
Brazil |
7 000* |
- |
2 000 |
- |
9 000 |
|
Chile |
2 151 |
2 458 |
- |
5 332 |
9 941 |
|
Colombia |
1 120 |
- |
2 181 |
- |
3 301 |
|
Costa Rica |
83 |
15 |
8 |
- |
106 |
|
Ecuador |
- |
- |
30 683 |
- |
30 683 |
|
El Salvador |
715 |
- |
91 |
- |
806 |
|
French Guiana |
- |
- |
15 |
- |
15 |
|
Guatemala |
41 |
- |
454 |
- |
495 |
|
Guyana |
91 |
- |
53 |
- |
144 |
|
Honduras |
136 |
- |
797 |
- |
933 |
|
Mexico |
6 398 |
40 633 |
600 |
- |
47 631 |
|
Nicaragua |
1 |
- |
- |
- |
1 |
|
Panama |
639 |
- |
3 016 |
- |
3 655 |
|
Paraguay |
- |
- |
- |
- |
- |
|
Peru |
567 |
316 |
1 644 |
- |
2 527 |
|
Suriname |
- |
- |
- |
- |
- |
|
Uruguay |
- |
- |
- |
- |
- |
|
Venezuela |
355 |
50 |
- |
- |
405 |
|
Total |
19 757 |
43 482 |
41 542 |
5 332 |
110 113 |
Source: FAO Fish. Circ 815
* Estimated
High value species, such as trout, catfish, freshwater prawns, and molluscs, are marketed within the national restaurant and tourist industries, while the more popular fish species which make up regional production (predominantly tilapia, carps, and colossoma) are consumed locally, typically at source or in the larger urban centres.
Except for the registered and licensed commercial operations, total surface areas under cultivation are difficult to estimate. Great variations in yield per unit surface area are recorded for any given species even under similar conditions or levels of technology employed, and sizes of farming units also vary widely. Even so, it has been reported that some countries have developed considerable surface areas of cultivation, such as Ecuador where over 110 000 ha are utilized for the production of shrimp and only 600 ha for finfish culture. Panama has some 82 ha of freshwater ponds and some 5 000 ha for shrimp culture. In Colombia cultivation in freshwater under extensive and intensive systems occupies about 1 000 ha, while 2 000 ha have been developed for coastal aquaculture (shrimp). El Salvador reports the existence of 300 ha devoted to shrimp culture, mostly under extensive cultivation and without the support of local hatcheries. In Guatemala freshwater ponds do not exceed 100 ha, which is less than 10% of the total surface dedicated to shrimp production. Some additional 26 ha produce freshwater prawns for domestic consumption. In Honduras the contrast between freshwater (41 ha) and marine (4 000 ha) is even greater.
In Mexico the total surface area of freshwater aquaculture is 10 000 ha, only slightly greater than that of marine shrimp culture. This proportion will soon revert itself as shrimp culture ponds continue to be built at an ever faster rate.
Peru has made more progress in shrimp farming and has now over 3 000 ha of ponds but only 35 ha of freshwater ponds. Other countries in the region generally report considerably less than 1 000 ha under culture for both marine and freshwater species.
On the other hand, culture-based fisheries occupy extensive areas as these usually involve natural or man-made water bodies or large river basins. The range of the former vary from relatively small barrages and lakes such as Lake Poopo in Bolivia (250 ha), to large dams and lakes sometimes over 10 000 ha (e.g. Lake Titicaca in Peru-Bolivia, and Lake Patzcuaro and the dams of Infiernillo and Temazcal in Mexico). These water bodies also sustain cage or pen-based intensive commercial operations in which only a minor proportion of the total surface area is actually occupied by culture facilities.
At the other end of the scale, most of the aquaculture production in Chile is derived from the marine environment where surface areas are virtually irrelevant. Such is the case of mussel production in Argentina and Peru, and of oysters in Mexico where over 40 000 t are produced annually.
Pond culture: The predominant system of aquaculture production in the region is extensive farming in small shallow ponds. A number of indigenous species have been cultured traditionally, such as Cichla ocellaris (in Panama), Colossoma bidens and Mylossoma bidens (in Brazil, Colombia, Peru, and Venezuela), Pimelodus spp., Prochilodus spp. (in Colombia), and Mugil spp. (in Brazil). These species have a variety of natural diets which has dictated specific practices. C. ocellaris, for example, is a predator and is often reared in polyculture with Tilapia spp. on which it feeds. C. bidens is a filter feeder and also eats small crustaceans, insects, and fruits. M. bidens eats mostly fruits. The many species of catfishes, Pimelodus spp., are mostly omnivorous, as are the Prochilodus and Mugil spp. Because of the feeding habits of these species, most of the culture practices are dependent on pond productivity which is enhanced by fertilization, usually organic wastes, and often involve polyculture.
Most farming practices rely on the collection of juveniles from natural resources to supplement the juveniles produced in the ponds from captive populations. However, the availability of all resources is low, which has constrained the elevation of production into semi-intensive systems. Resources which are available in large numbers are often used for stocking lakes and reservoirs, as is the case with the silverside (Odonthesthes bonairenses) in Peru. Mugil spp. are usually raised in coastal brackishwater ponds (Colombia, Mexico, Peru, and Venezuela).
Five tilapia species (T. mossambica, T. rendalli, O. niloticus, O. aureus, and S. hornorum) have been introduced into the region and stocked in ponds, in large water bodies, and even released into open watersheds. Tilapia are now farmed in some form in Bolivia, Brazil, Colombia, Costa Rica, Ecuador, El Salvador, Guatemala, Honduras, Mexico, Nicaragua, and Paraguay. Similarly the common carp (Cyprinus carpio) has been introduced and is now farmed in Brazil, Colombia, Guatemala, Honduras, and Paraguay. These warmwater species have all adapted well to these countries, not only to the climatic conditions but also to the range of natural foods available to them. The management practices for production are relatively simple and the level of extensive farming can be conveniently accommodated to the economies of each particular locale. The two Chinese carps, bighead (Aristichthys nobilis) and silver (Hypophthalmichthys molitrix), and grass carp (Ctenopharyngodon idella) have also been introduced into Honduras, and other countries such as Costa Rica and Mexico, and are often raised in ponds in polyculture with the common carp and tilapia species.
These introduced species constitute the main component of some of the most important culture-based fisheries in the region, exceeding over 100 000 t per year. Although non-traditional fish consumers, many communities in Latin America have virtually adopted these species as part of their staple fish diet.
Marine shrimps (Penaeus spp.) are the most important species farmed in coastal brackishwater ponds and the areas under production are increasing each year. In 1987, for example, production in Ecuador reached almost 70 000 t, while Panama and Peru are approaching a production of 4 000 t each. Several other countries of the region have just about doubled their production albeit still small in volume. Cultured production in Ecuador is now greater than the natural harvest of shrimp. Extensive coastal lands and lagoons have been developed, and mangrove swamps reclaimed for pond construction.
Latin America is a leading world producer of cultured shrimp, having harvested over 80 000 t in 1988. Although 85% is being produced by Ecuador, the industry is rapidly growing in other countries. By 1988 Brazil, Colombia, Honduras, Mexico, Panama, and Peru were reporting harvests in excess of 1 000 t. Although the Latin American shrimp culture industry lags behind that of Asia, its share of the total world harvest may increase significantly to levels above 20% as several important potential producers expand their production. Recent developments in Mexico, Brazil and Colombia confirm the former and will have an especially important impact on the industry's future.
Raceway culture: Traditional farming of salmonids has centred on rainbow trout (Salmo gairdneri), which readily acclimated to the cool waters of the temperate zones and high mountains. Although mostly released into natural water bodies for sports fishing, a number of land-based freshwater farms have been constructed using high water exchange rates (raceways) and relying on artificial feeding. Farmed production is now recorded in Argentina (460 t), Chile (2 384 t), Colombia (400 t), Costa Rica (25 t), Mexico (425 t), Peru (471 t), and Venezuela (315 t).
The channel catfish (Ictalurus punctatus) has also been cultured in raceways wherever gravity-fed warm waters are abundantly available. In Mexico over 200 t are produced in such systems.
Cage culture: The salmonids have readily adapted to other intensive systems, particularly farming in floating cages. Rainbow trout adapted to saltwater are now cultured by such practices, and two species of Pacific salmon, the silver or coho (Onchorhynchus kisutch) and king or spring (O. tyshawytscha). Recently the Atlantic salmon (Salmo salar) has been reintroduced for cage farming. All cage culture of these salmon species is practised in Chile, but further attempts are being made in Argentina and the Falkland Islands.
Cage culture of several tilapia species is practised in Brazil, Colombia, and El Salvador in natural water bodies and reservoirs. The fish do better in terms of increased growth rate if provided with supplemental feeds but many locations have a natural productivity which can sustain reasonable densities.
Ocean ranching: The oceanic waters of the Southern Ocean are rich in natural resources of planktonic organisms ideal for migratory salmonids. For several years Chile has developed an ocean ranching programme with Pacific salmon. The first returns are mostly being used to build up increased annual releases.
Off-bottom and on-bottom culture of molluscs: The majority of molluscs are produced off-bottom, suspended from floating rafts or longlines. Others are managed on tidal beds. The species of importance produced in the region are the American cupped oyster, Crassostrea virginica, which is cultured in Mexico, and the Pacific cupped oyster, C. gigas, and Chilean flat oyster, Ostrea chilensis, in Chile. Brazil produces C. braziliana. The Chilean mussel, Mytilus chilensis, and choro mussel, Choromytilus chorus, are farmed in Chile; the blue mussel, M. edulis, and M. platensis in Argentina; the rock mussel, P. perna, in Venezuela. Some scallops (Pectenid spp.) are produced in Peru and Chile. Small farms are in operation for abalones (Haliotis spp.) in Mexico and Chile but production is not yet significant. Only Costa Rica reports significant production of freshwater molluscs (15 t/year).
Coastal farming of algae: Within the region Chile is the only important producer of marine algae (Gracilaria spp.), having produced over 9 000 t through the propagation, management, and harvesting of natural beds.
Producers in the region can be classified into four principal groups: the corporate or industrial producers; private farmers (usually owner operators of small farms, complementary to other agricultural activities), rural farmers (non-commercial, subsistence family-based land and households with scarce resources); and artisanal fishermen who benefit from aquaculture through government operated culture-based fisheries.
In most countries the large privately-owned companies dominate the export-oriented production for crustaceans and molluscs. With the exception of Mexico, where only cooperatives are permitted by law to engage in the cultivation of shrimps and oysters, shrimp farming in general has attracted considerable national and international investment. Multinational corporations have set up shrimp farms in Belize, Colombia, Ecuador, El Salvador, Guatemala, Honduras, and Panama. In many cases these farms are vertically integrated, thus becoming direct exporters.
In Chile most production of salmonids is undertaken by corporate producers, although some cooperatives also participate in this activity. In Argentina 80% of the 460 t of trout are produced by only four commercial units, while the remaining 20% are produced by some 20 smaller units.
In the Latin American countries aquaculture production is distributed over a large number of producers. In Ecuador there are some 1 200 shrimp producers. In 1985 in Chile there were 18 enterprises producing chorito in the southern region, employing about 1 000 workers. Further north another 14 produce chorito and choro. About 9 enterprises produce oysters, and 3 scallops. There are 19 farms involved in salmonid production; six private companies produce salmon in the Chiloe region, and two companies dominate trout production. In the country the harvesting and management of the coastal resources of algae (Gracilaria spp.) employ the largest number of people. About 11 000 are employed in the industry, of whom about 8 500 work on Gracilaria.
In Peru there are about 120 private shrimp producers, and about 30 freshwater fish farms. There are some 93 enterprises associated with shellfish production. The production of trout fry is the responsibility of 22 public stations.
Most owner-operators with small farms produce freshwater prawns and finfish (particularly the higher valued species such as trout, catfish, some tilapias, such as red hybrids, and lately, but to a much smaller extent, with colossoma). These farmers in general are directly involved in marketing their products, as neither marketing associations nor middlemen dedicated specifically to this trade, exist. The main customers of these "luxury" species are the restaurants and hotels, and supermarkets, generally located either in the larger urban centres or in tourist resorts. Smaller amounts are sometimes also channelled to local market places.
The rural subsistence farmers and culture-based fishermen produce tilapia, carps, and other native species. In the former case, the fish is consumed within the same household, while in the latter the fish are usually marketed through intermediaries and other conventional channels.
The culture-based fisheries for tilapia in Brazil and Mexico involve many fishermen. In North-Eastern Brazil some 10 000 fishermen catch fish in 102 reservoirs and temporary barrages. In Mexico over 145 communities of fishermen depend on culture-based fisheries in continental waters for their living. In addition there are about 1 700 registered private and public production units for freshwater species, mostly trout, catfish, tilapia and carps, of which 66 operate intensive systems while the rest are semi-intensive and extensive operations. In total, over 64 000 persons work directly in the aquaculture sector of this country.
In some instances culture-based fish production has increased substantially as a result of the organization of fishermen into cooperatives. For instance, in one lake of Bolivia, pejerrey catches increased by 388% in a period of five years. In Panama the Instituto Panameño de Cooperativas has organized several communities surrounding Lake Gatun into fishing cooperatives catching over 50 t of both native and introduced species, and several other cooperatives have been formed around various lakes and dams of the country (such as Yeguada, Alajuela, and Bayano).
In Chile there are many small cooperatives of shellfish and algae producers based on the 12 governmental regions. Some universities, which support the sector with research, have tried to organize the small producers into cooperatives. For example, the Universidad Austral de Chile, at Valdivia, organized producers of mussel spat into a cooperative, and in 1987 its 19 members effectively increased annual production to 300 million spat. The Fundación para la Capacitación del Pescador Artesanal and other institutions have been training artisanal fishermen in aquaculture techniques to increase productivity and thus their overall incomes. The producers of export products are also assisted by the ProChile Organization.
In Colombia several organizations of producers have been created with the aim of strengthening their capabilities and protecting their interests. The main one is the Asociación Nacional de Acuicultores which includes trout and other warmwater fish species producers as well as the Pacific shrimp farmers, while the Caribbean shrimp farmers are affiliated as a Committee of the Fisheries Board of the Asociación Nacional de Industriales. The Asociación de Piscicultores de Huila is a local association of smaller fish farmers.
In Mexico the exploitation and production of either of the high value marine species, including shrimp and oysters, are reserved exclusively to cooperative societies. Therefore all shrimp and oyster producers by law have to associate themselves into cooperatives; approximately 100 such aquaculture organizations exist. Seventy of these cooperatives are members of the National Federation of Cooperatives. The shrimp farming cooperatives alone employ some 6 000 members and technicians.
Independent small-scale and commercial producers have formed the Asociación Mexicana de Acuicultores to seek common solutions to technical, financial, and marketing problems. Among other activities they have organized annual conferences to exchange information and discuss strategies to strengthen their own organization. The National Chamber of the Fishing Industry is another organization of the private sector which has been actively lobbying to allow them to culture shrimp and other species without necessarily having to associate with cooperatives.
In Ecuador shrimp farmers have formed their own trade association, the Camara de Productores de Camaron. This association groups the 14 000 permanent workers of the shrimp farming industry (including owners, administrative employees, biologists, and technicians plus some other 1 500 hatchery workers). However, the estimated 30 000 fishermen dedicated to the collection of wild seed stock do not necessarily benefit from the formation of such an association.
Peru has the Asociación de Langostineros formed by 43 of the 120 private shrimp producers. However, there is no association among the freshwater fish producers. Almost all the shellfish growers are members of the Asociación de Conchilicultores. Panama also has an association of shrimp farmers.
Although credited with substantial investment in the aquaculture sector of Latin American countries, development banks only provide loans to governments for investment in the aquaculture sectors. The recipient governments, who agree to pay back the loans, should be recognized as the principal investors of the US$ 50 million or more of external funds which have been channelled into the sector in the last decade. In addition to the repayments of loans, there has also been incalculable domestic investment by most countries interested in developing aquaculture as an industry.
The IDB has provided about US$ 30 million over the last decade to the regional sector. For example, in Panama the IDB has made a series of loans for fish farming (US$ 4 million) and shrimp farming (US$ 9 million) combined with a national programme (US$ 7 million); Peru has received US$ 4 million for shrimp farming. Similar schemes have been granted to other countries, mainly Brazil, Ecuador, and Mexico. The World Bank (WB) has also provided loans for aquaculture as part of major development loans, and financing capital construction, training, credit, and management. For example, as part of a US$ 135 million loan to Chile, a small part was for salmon ranching.
Domestic investment may be assisted in a number of ways. In particular there are (i) quasi-commercial loan assistance schemes, (ii) grants and subsidies, and (iii) indirect support through administration, extension, research, education, and training.
(i) Quasi-commercial loan assistance schemes. There is considerable domestic investment through loan schemes handled by the national, agricultural, and fisheries development banks. Credit is available for farmers mostly for construction and rehabilitation of facilities, though in some countries of the region it is also available for operations, and the annual purchase of seeds lock, feeds, and labour.(ii) Government grants and subsidies. Many aquaculturists take advantage of government grants, usually provided through national development boards established to stimulate investment in new technologies, or to promote integrated rural development. In some countries of the region there are subsidies from the fisheries department for feeds, nets, and other equipment. Coastal aquaculture farmers have also benefited from subsidies for land reclamation and the provision of other public services.
(iii) Indirect support. Most governments underwrite the investment they provide in the normal course of national sector management. This includes the cost of sectorial administration and government services, such as the regulatory and extension departments. Indirect support also includes research and development for aquaculture, either at national aquaculture research centres and fisheries laboratories, and at national universities. In fact, education and manpower training is a further hidden and expensive national cost, and consequently in most countries of the region, these have been significant components of external assistance. Finally, most governments operate production facilities (hatcheries and farms) to supply seed to encourage further aquaculture development or to manage and operate culture-based fisheries. These production activities are not always managed economically, and therefore seed resources are subsidized.
The present aquaculture production in Latin America is the result of considerable private and public investment in the sector. The private sector generally invests most of its capital in the production of cash crops (export products), mainly marine shrimps and shellfish, but in the case of Chile in salmon. For example, all shrimp culture in Colombia, Ecuador, Panama, Peru, Venezuela, and Central American countries is in the hands of the private sector. In Mexico, however, the so-called "organized social sector" has recently invested over US$ 1.6 million in hatchery facilities for molluscs and at present is constructing several other shrimp hatcheries. The public sector, on the other hand, continues to fund the national infrastructure, such as production facilities (hatcheries), research and training centres, and experimental fish stations, all of which lead to increased production of finfish for local markets, particularly for the culture-based fisheries.
The Government of Belize and foreign financial groups have played key roles in the early development of the country's shrimp culture industry. The Government has established a Mariculture Unit to oversee and aid shrimp farmers, who are eligible for fiscal incentives. About US$ 6.5 million has been invested in the industry so far and an additional US$ 11.5 million is planned, of which 95% has come from foreign sources, primarily the USA.
The Government of Mexico has an ambitious programme for the development of shrimp farming, based on an agreement between the social and private sectors that calls for an investment of over US$ 300 million to develop some 70 000 ha of coastal ponds and reach a production of some 60 000 t per year. The Government's role in the industry, as it is now structured, is critical, given the exclusion of private investors. The rapid expansion of the industry is drawing the attention of many companies interested in supplying materials and services. Some of the Government's past achievements, such as the development of a major tuna industry, would indicate that if its Ministry of Fisheries actively supports the industry, Mexico should be able to develop one of Latin America's most important shrimp culture industries.
In Ecuador foreign investment and technical assistance (primarily but not exclusively from France, Japan, and the USA) have played a key role in the industry's development, even though the industry was initiated by Ecuadorean investors. US investment alone possibly exceeds US$ 300 million. Companies, financed or managed by foreign owners, control the shrimp export business, shrimp feed and fertilizers, many semi-intensive farms, and some of the most successful hatcheries.
Various government agencies have been active in the development of the shrimp farming industry in Brazil. The Superintendencia de Desenvolvimiento Pesqueiro and other government institutions have been promoting commercial development. In 1981, spurred by government credits, the first commercial shrimp farms were built. By 1984 almost US$ 23 million in low-interest loans to support the industry had been invested. The IDB has provided about US$ 15 million to the Brazilian Government to finance commercial shrimp culture projects as part of a much larger fisheries development programme approved in 1980. A few major companies dominate Brazil's marine shrimp culture industry, but some of these farms are experiencing technical and economic problems mostly because they culture indigenous species. Technical advances, such as increased hatchery production of P. vannamei and the development of better feeds for indigenous species, could rapidly change the situation.
The Ministry of Fisheries of Peru recognizes the industry's potential and has been promoting its development. Many Peruvian farms are associations formed by small groups of investors. Several of these farmers have associated themselves into larger marketing investment groups. Although the industry was severely affected in 1982-83 by the El Niño climatic changes, it has recovered and is expected to continue expanding over the next few years. The Peruvian Institute of Foreign Commerce has arranged for technical assistance for shrimp farmers from the EEC.
International assistance first began to flow into the region when it was believed that subsistence aquaculture could make a significant contribution to rural development. This assistance was initially provided in terms of research and development of fish culture technologies which included biological and ecological studies, pond construction, artificial reproduction, seedstock production, feeding and nutrition studies, in addition to training human resources in these same fields. Most assistance projects were oriented toward the culture of freshwater fishes, then attention was focused on freshwater prawn and later toward culture of molluscs. Only recently has marine shrimp attracted the attention of both international assistance agencies and foreign investors.
The US Agency for International Development (USAID) played an important role in the initial stages of rural fish farming development in various countries of the region, notably in Central America, Brazil, and Colombia. Its general strategy was to create or strengthen a central hatchery or fish culture station from which to deploy its extension programme. This was integrated by Peace Corps volunteers as well as by local extension agents. Tilapia was the main species propagated for the subsistence fish farming projects promoted by USAID.
Eventually other international agencies provided technical assistance to countries of the region. UNDP/FAO implemented a number of projects in nearly all countries of the region, generally oriented toward the development of rural fish farming. Their main achievement was strengthening governments' capabilities to produce seedstock for stocking ponds and to conduct their own extension, training, and research programmes. Specialists and highly qualified experts were commissioned as technical advisors to these projects, who were assisted by the Regional Fisheries Officer.
Multilateral and bilateral technical assistance for production projects is continuing to flow into the region. The German Agency for Technical Cooperation (GTZ) is supporting projects in Costa Rica (freshwater finfish), Chile (molluscs and seaweeds), and Brazil (coastal aquaculture). JICA is providing technical assistance to Peru (scallops), Chile (molluscs), Bolivia (trout and tropical fish farming), and Panama (shrimp). Projects financed by the International Development Research Centre (IDRC) are underway in Peru (hatchery operations), Ecuador (culture of chame, a native species), in Colombia (culture of colossomids), and Panama (marine polyculture). USAID is assisting Ecuador (shrimp hatcheries), Panama (shrimp and freshwater ponds), and El Salvador (tilapia culture). The Institut Français de Recherche pour le Développement en Coopération (ORSTOM) and the British Overseas Development Administration (ODA) have assisted the region by sponsoring fisheries and fish farming projects, respectively, in Bolivia. Taiwan, Province of China (PC) has assisted Panama, El Salvador, Guatemala, and Colombia to develop freshwater prawn farming.
In the countries of the region, capital assistance for the construction of all types of production facilities has so far played a vitally important role in development. Principal facilities which have qualified for capital aid are government demonstration farms, production hatcheries, and small-scale pond complexes for new farmers. Although varying among the different agencies and financing organizations, capital aid has usually been given to Latin America in association with technical assistance and/or a component for credit.
The Interamerican Institute of Agricultural Sciences in Turrialba, Costa Rica, was funded by the Organization of American States (OAS) through the IDB supporting aquaculture within the region. More recently the OAS has contributed to the construction of a shrimp hatchery and a pilot farm in Suriname.
JICA has financed a salmon hatchery and farms for smolt production in Chile, and another hatchery for the production of molluscs at Coquimbo, as a joint project with the Universidad del Norte. In Ecuador the Centro Nacional de Acuicultura e Investigaciones Marinas also received significant capital aid from JICA.
USAID has financed the construction of freshwater fish hatcheries and ponds in Colombia, El Salvador, Guatemala, Honduras, and Panama. ODA assisted in the construction of a hatchery in Bolivia.
In Guyana, Guyana-Aquaculture, the local subsidiary of France-Aquaculture, built a shrimp hatchery and pilot farm. The Government of Taiwan (PC) has provided capital assistance to the Uruguayan Instituto Nacional de Pesca for the construction of a freshwater shrimp hatchery.
