2. THE STATE OF FORESTRY IN THE COUNTRY AND MAJOR TRENDS

2.1 Forest Resources - Status and Trends
2.2 Environmental Initiatives, Protected Areas and Wildlife Resources - Status and Trends
2.3 Overall wood production and utilization
2.4 Non-Wood Forest Products, Status and Trends
2.5 Services of Forests: Status and Trends
2.6 Institutions and Policies

2.1 Forest Resources - Status and Trends

India is endowed with forest resources rich in diverse flora and fauna. The forest types vary from Tropical Rain Forest in north-eastern India. Western Gnats and Andaman and Nicobar Islands to Desert and Thorn Forests in Gujarat and Rajasthan, Rich mangrove Forests in West Bengal, Orissa, Andhra Pradesh and Andaman and Nicobar Islands to Dry Alpine Forests in Western Himalayas. India has approximately 7% of total mangrove forests of the world.

Forest resources of the country can be classified in a number of ways, such as legal classification, functional classification, according to vegetation (forest) types and according density etc.. A brief description of such classification is given as under.

Legal Classification - Recorded Forests are those areas which are legally notified as forests areas and are entered as such in government records (in forest and/or revenue records). Almost entire forest resources in the country are government owned and a negligible forest area is in private hands. Total Recorded Forest Area in the country is 765,210 sq. km, which is 23.28% of total geographical area of the country. Recorded Forests can be broadly classified into three categories Reserved Forests (416,516 sq. km). Protected Forests (223,309 sq. km) and Unclassed Forests (125,385 sq. km). Table I gives state wise details recorded forests. Forest consolidation began along with forest administration by legally classifying forest into different categories. A large part of forest today was notified before independence of India in 1947 and some were notified later on. Whatever classified forest exists today is the result of that thoughtful action otherwise most of it would have been fragmented and lost its character as happened to areas outside. No doubt forest administration began in colonial period but the main emphasis remains unchanged even now since it was conceptualised with a vision.

Table I - Reserved/Protected/Unclassed Forest area of India in 1995 (in sq. km.)

Sl. No.	States/Union Territories (UTs) Forest	Reserved Forest	Protected Forest	Unclassed Forest	Total Area
1	Andhra Pradesh	50,479	12,365	970	63,814
2	Arunachal Pradesh	15,321	8	36,211	51,540
3	Assam	18,242	3,934	8,532	30,708
4	Bihar	5,051	24,168	7	29,226
5	Delhi	42	---	---	42
6	Goa, Daman & Diu	165	---	1,259	1,424
7	Gujarat	13,819	997	4,577	19,393
8	Haryana	247	1,104	322	1,673
9	Himachal Pradesh	1,896	31,473	2,038	35,407
10	Jammu & Kashmir	20,182	-	-	20,182
11	Karnataka	28,611	3,932	6,181	38,724
12	Kerala	11,038	183	-	11,221
13	Madhya Pradesh	82,700	66,678	5,119	154,497
14	Maharashtra	48,373	9,350	6,119	63,842
15	Manipur	4,171	9,520	1,463	15,154
16	Meghalya	981	12	8,503	9,496
17	Mizoram	7,127	3,568	5,240	15,935
18	Nagaland	86	507	8,036	8,629
19	Orissa	27,087	30,080	17	57,184
20	Punjab	1,107	1,750	44	2,901
21	Rajasthan	11,585	16,837	3,278	31,700
22	Sikkim	285	104	2,261	2,650
23	Tamil Nadu	19,486	2,528	614	22,628
24	Tripura	509	2,196	3,588	6,293
25	Uttar Pradesh	36,425	1,499	13,739	51,663
26	West Bengal	7,054	3,772	1,053	11,879
27	Andaman & Nicobar Island	2,929	4,242	---	7,171
28	Chandigarh	31	---	---	31
29	Dadra & Nagar Haveli	203	---	---	203
30	Lakshdweep				N.A
31	Pondicherry
	Total	416516	223,309	125,385	765,210

Source:- State of Forest Report, 1995 by Forest Survey of India

Functional Classification - Exact details on extent of forest area on functional basis is not available. However we can broadly say that approximately 10 million hectares of forests are managed as Protection Forests for protection of catchments, conservation of soil in eco-fragile areas and other reasons, 16 million hectares are managed as production forests to meet demands of forest products for industries, railways and defence, 25 million hectares are used as social forests for meeting multifarious needs of people in general and tribals and rural poor in particular and 15 million hectares are maintained as Protected Areas for conservation of biodiversity.

Table II - Occurrence of Forest Types in India, 1988

Sl. No.	Forest Type	Area in Sq. Km.	%	Occurrence
1.	Tropical Wet Evergreen Forest	51,249	8.0	Arunachal Pradesh, Assam, Karnataka, Kerala, Manipur, Nagaland. Tamilnadu, A& N Island and Goa
2.	Tropical Semi Evergreen Forest	26,794	4.1	Assam, Gujarat, Karnataka, Kerala Maharashtra, Goa, Nagaland, Orissa, Tamilnadu, Andaman & Nicobar Island
3.	Tropical Moist Deciduous Forest	236,794	37.0	Andhra Pradesh, Assam, Gujarat, M.P. Maharashtra, Kerala, Maharashtra, Bihar, Manipur, Meghalaya. Mizoram, Tripura, Nagaland, Orissa, Tamilnadu, U.P., Goa West-Bengal, A & N Island, and Dadra & Nagar Haveli
4.	Littoral and Swamp Forest	4,046	0.6	Andhra Pradesh, Gujarat Maharashtra, Orissa, Tamilnadu, West Bengal and A & N Island.
5.	Tropical Dry Deciduous Forest	186,620	28.6	Andhra Pradesh, Gujarat. Haryana, H. P., Karnataka, M.P., Maharashtra, J&K, Orissa, Punjab, Rajasthan, UP, Tamilnadu, West Bengal and Kerala
6.	Tropical Thorn Forest	16,491	2.6	Andhra Pradesh, UP,Gujarat, Haryana, Karnataka, M.P., Maharashtra, Punjab, Rajasthan, HP, and Tamilnadu
7.	Tropical Dry Evergreen Forest	1,404	0.2	Andhra Pradesh and Tamilnadu
8.	Sub-Tropical Broad Leafed Hill Forest	2,781	0.4	Assam, Maharashtra, Meghalya, and West Bengal.
9.	Sub-Tropical Pine Forest	42,377	6.6	Arunachal Pradesh, HP, J&K, Manipur, Meghalaya, Nagaland. Sikkim and UP
10.	Sub Tropical Dry Evergreen Forest	12,538	2.5	HP, J&K and Mizoram
11.	Mountain Wet Temperate Forest	23,365	3.5	Arunachal Pradesh, Karanataka, Manipur, Nagaland, Sikkim and Tamilnadu
12.	Himalayan Moist Temperate Forests	22,012	3.4	HP, J&K and UP
13.	Himalayan Dry Temperate Forest	313	-	J&K and HP
14.	Sub-Alpine and Alpine	18,628	2.8	Arunchal Pradesh, HP, J&K, Forest Nagaland, Sikkim and UP

Source: National Wasteland Development Board, 1988.

Forest Types - Forests are not distributed evenly in India, but are concentrated in Northeast, the Himalayas and Shiwalik Ranges, the Central Belt, Andaman and Nicobar Islands, strips along Western Gnats, Eastern Ghats and other hilly areas, and in patches of coastal mangroves. Of the area under forest cover, 37% is Tropical Moist Deciduous Forests (including the high value Sal forests); 29% is Tropical Deciduous Forests (where Teak is valuable species); 8% is Tropical Wet Evergreen Forests and 26% is Sub-Tropical, Temperate, Alpine and other forests. Distribution of various forest types within the country is given in Table-II. More than 50% forests is located within five states: Madhya Pradesh, Arunachal Pradesh, Andhra Pradesh, Orissa and Maharashtra. Most of the forests are not in contiguous blocks but rather small patches interspersed by habitations. In future it may be fragmented further due to multifarious demands on forest land mass.

Table III - Actual Forest Cover by Density Classes and Mangrove Vegetation in India (1995 Assessment) (in sq. km.)

Sl. No	State/UTs	Dense Forest (Crown density 40 % and above)	Open Forest (Crown density 10 to below 40 %)	Mangrove	Total Forest Cover
1.	Andhra Pradesh	24,827	21,902	383	47,112
2.	Arunachal Pradesh	54,176	14,445	-	68,621
3.	Assam	15,694	8,367	-	24,061
4	Bihar	13,343	13,218	-	26,561
5	Delhi	16	10	-	26
6	Goa, Daman & Diu	995	252	3	1,250
7	Gujarat	6,369	5,262	689	12,320
8	Haryana	370	233	-	603
9	Himachal Pradesh	9,565	2,936	-	12,501
10	Jammu & Kashmir	9,413	-	20,433	11,020
11	Karnataka	24,859	7,521	2	32,382
12	Kerala	8,455	1,881	-	10,336
13	Madhya Pradesh	95,153	40,011	-	135,164
14	Maharashtra	25,673	18,015	155	43,843
15	Manipur	5,318	12,240	-	17,558
16	Meghalya	4,045	11,669	-	15,714
17	Mizoram	4,281	14,295	-	18,576
18	Nagaland	3,487	10,804	-	14,291
19	Orissa	27,163	19,749	195	47,107
20	Punjab	481	861	-	1,342
21	Rajasthan	3,684	9,596	-	13,280
22	Sikkim	2,424	703	-	3,127
23	Tamil Nadu	9,418	8,327	21	17,766
24	Tripura	1,819	3,719	-	5,538
25	Uttar Pradesh	22,969	11,017	-	33,986
26	West Bengal	3,463	2,694	2,119	8,276
27	Andaman & Nicobar Island	6,524	125	966	7,615
28	Chandigarh	6	1	-	7
29	Dadra & Nagar Haveli	159	45	-	204
30	Lakshdweep	-	-	-	-
31	Pondicherry	-	-	-	-
	Total	385,756	249,311	4,533	639,600

Source: State of Forest Report, 1995 by Forest Survey of India

Forest Cover - As per State of Forest report, 1995 by Forest Survey of India, the actual forest/tree cover of the country (based on satellite imageries pertaining to the period 1991-93), is 639,600 sq. km, which is 19.45% of the total geographic area of the country. Out of this 385,756 sq. km is Dense Forest (Crown Density 40% and above), 249,311 sq. km is Open Forest (Crown Density between 10% to 40%), 4,533 sq. km is Mangrove Forests and 60,528 sq. km is Scrub Area (tree land with Crown Density less than 10%). State-wise forest cover according to density classes is given in Table III.

The Report further shows that in comparison 1993 assessment, forest cover of the country has declined by 507 sq. km. Open Forest have decreased by 964 sq. km, while Dense and Mangrove Forests have increased by 180 and 277 sq. km respectively. Forest Cover in north-eastern region has declined by 783 sq. km (Open Forests decreased by 939 sq. km and Dense Forests increased by 156 sq. km) and in rest of the country forest cover increased by 276 sq. km (Dense Forest +24, Open Forest -25 and Mangrove +277). Even 1993 assessment has shown decrease in forest cover in north-eastern region by 635 sq. km. Loss of forest cover in north-eastern Region is attributed largely to shifting cultivation.

Protected Areas - India has a large network of Protected Areas for in-situ conservation on wild flora and fauna. At present there are 80 National Parks and 441 wildlife sanctuaries covering about 148,849 sq. km area. Representing about 4.5% of total geographical area of the country. National Parks cover 114,164.5 sq. km and wildlife sanctuaries 34,864.53 sq. km. State-wise details of National Parks and Wildlife Sanctuaries is given in Table IV. Some more areas have been added to both the categories in the meanwhile.

Condition of Forest Resources - Forest resources in India are under very heavy biotic pressure and geographic stress. The pressure exerted by human and cattle population is further exacerbated by monsoonic pattern of rain. As nearly 90% of the country receives rainfall from varying from 2 to 6 months, the remaining 6-10 months remain dry. This heavy pressure has led to deforestation and degradation of forest resources. Various factors are responsible for this in different regions of the country in varying degrees.

Shifting Cultivation is one of the primitive systems of raising food crops with "slash and burn" technique. It has been in practice since long and got ingrained into the tradition and culture of most of the tribals in the country. This pernicious practice affects forest considerably. North Eastern states in India have more concentration of tribal people. Loss of forest cover is very acute in north-eastern region, and primary reason for this loss is shifting cultivation. Shifting Cultivation is practised in parts of the states of Andhra Pradesh, Bihar, Madhya Pradesh, Orissa, in addition to all seven north-eastern states. Incidence of shifting cultivation is very heavy in Orissa and north-eastern states (Arunachal Pradesh, Assam, Manipur, Meghalaya, Mizoram, Nagaland, and Tripura). Traditionally shifting cultivation was practised on long cycles with rest period ranging from 10 to 30 years. However with increase in population of shifting cultivators cycle of shifting cultivation is reduced to below 5 years and some times down to two years. It has resulted in severe loss to forest resources and biodiversity. It has also increased misery of shifting cultivators as the agricultural yield is falling rapidly due to decreasing productive capacity of soil in the shifting cultivation area. Except for the Task Force set-up by Ministry of Agriculture in 1983 the data on shifting cultivation is very sketchy. Approximately 6.5 million tribals are practising shifting cultivation over 10 million hectares of forest lands. However it has been noticed that the practice of shifting cultivation is reducing with time. A number of initiatives have been adopted in relation to shifting cultivation, but the result has been not very encouraging. In some cases, balanced programmes introduced in areas where traditional groups still have relatively long fallow cycles (10 years or more) could allow continuance of shifting cultivation without adverse environmental impacts. In other cases combinations of agroforestry and rainfed farming needs to be introduced, but it would require implementation of appropriate development packages.

Table IV - National Parks and Wildlife Sanctuaries of India, 1995

Sl. No.	State/Uts	National Parks		Wildlife Sanctuaries
		Number	Area (Sq.Km.)	Number	Area (Sq.Km.)
1	2	3	4	5	6
1	Andhra Pradesh	1	352.62	20	12,084.59
2	Arunachal Pradesh	2	2,468.23	9	6,777.75
3	Assam	2	930.00	9	1,381.58
4	Bihar	2	567.32	10	4,624.00
5	Delhi	-	-	1	13.20
6	Goa	1	107.00	4	335.40
7	Gujarat	4	479.67	21	16,744.27
8	Haryana	1	1.43	9	229.18
9	Himachal Pradesh	2	1,295.00	29	4,576.92
10	Jammu & Kashmir	4	3,810.07	16	10,163.67
11	Karnataka	3	2,472.18	20	4,229.213
12	Kerala	3	536.52	12	1,810.36
13	Madhya Pradesh	11	6,143.12	32	10,847.51
14	Maharashtra	5	956.45	24	14,309.51
15	Manipur	2	81.30	1	184.85
16	Meghalya	2	386.70	3	34.207
17	Mizoram	2	250.00	3	720.00
18	Nagaland	1	202.02	3	34.35
19	Orissa	2	1,212.07	17	6,175.49
20	Punjab	Nil	-	6	294.82
21	Rajasthan	4	3,856.53	22	5,694.02
22	Sikkim	1	850.00	4	603.62
23	Tamil Nadu	5	307.86	13	2,527.29
24	Tripura	Nil	-	4	161.01
25	Uttar Pradesh	7	5,409.05	28	8,078.52
26	West Bengal	5	1,692.65	16	1,064.29
27	Andaman & Nicobar Islands	6	315.61	94	437.16
28	Chandigarh	-	-	1	25.42
29	Dadra & Nagar Haveli	-	-	-	-
30	Daman & Diu	-	-	1	2.18
31	Lakshdweep	-	-	-	-
32	Pondicherry	-	-	-	-
	Total	80	34,684.53	441	114,164.50

Source:- State of Forest Report, 1995 by Forest Survey of India

Encroachments on Forest Lands - Reliable data on encroachments on forest lands are not available. Forest Survey of India estimated in 1987 that over 700,000 hectares of forest lands are under encroachments. By now it has increased considerably. Most of the forest area under encroachments is being used for agricultural purpose. At several places it has been observed that some encroachments began as a sort of shifting cultivation and then turn to settlement and permanent cultivation. This act has a very devastating effect on forest which gets fragmented and mutilated. As in the case of shifting cultivation agriculture on eco-fragile forest areas are not sustainable due to faulty agronomic practices. Since they are farming illegally they can not approach government extension services for help. In the meanwhile about 0.2 million hectares of such encroached land have been regularised as per F.C. Act, 1980.

Table V - Extent of Grazing in Inventoried Forest Area of India, 1995

State or District (No. of samples)	Incidence of Grazing (%)
	High	Medium	Light	Total
Singbhum	19.1	32.4	31.5	83.0
West Champaran (N 96)	4.6	28.5	47.2	80.3
Assam(N2462)	6.7	13.7	29.1	49.5
Cooch Bihar (N 75)	32.2	51.3	-	93.5
There Garhwal	14.6	28.2	28.6	71.4
Koraput (N 1354)	20.0	29.0	34.0	83.0
TATI (U.P.) (N 536)	5.2	15.7	65.8	86.7
South (U.P.) (N 831)	34.7	42.9	16.3	93.9
Puruliya(N 112)	42.9	33.0	17.8	93.7
Kalahandi (N 423)	19.8	30.3	27.9	78.0
Raipur (N 809)	36.0	33.0	18.0	87.0
Shimoga (N 418)	-	-	-	-
Chikmaglur/Hassan (N 357)
Dadra & Nagar Haveli (N62)	10.0	86.0	4.0	96.0
Manipur (N 1880)	5.0	11.0	30.0	46.0
Tripura	13.5	30.0	37.0	80.5
Lower Subansiri	3.0	17.9	31.9	52.8
Arunachal Pradesh (N 328)
Upper Subansiri (N 228)	-	2.8	24.0	26.8
Sikkim (N 401)	4.8	20.1	29.6	54.5
Meghalaya (N 1659)	4.1	17.8	42.2	64.1
Mysore (N 338)	17.6	14.2	29.8	61.6
DARJEELING (N 130)	4.6	32.6	42.8	80.0
U.P. Hill Region (N 1235)	13.0	35.4	33.3	81.7
Shimla/Rohru/Chopal (H.P.)	31.6	27.4	25.7	84.7
Chamba, Lahaul Spiti Kinnaur (N 261)	13.9	32.6	42.5	89.0
S. E. Rajasthan (N 2446)	56.5	28.4	11.5	96.4
Shivalik Range Of Haryana, Punjab (N 145)	19.7	35.9	28.2	83.8
Jammu Region (N 428)	17.4	53.2	25.4	96.0
Dhulia (N 356)	24.7	39.1	21.2	85.0
Nasik/Thane. Raigad (N 846)	27.0	35.0	24.0	86.0
Raigarh (M. P.) (N 561)	31.0	32.0	20.0	83.0
Mean	18.3	31.0	28.2	77.6

Source: State Forest Report 1995

Table VI - Extent of Fire in Inventoried Forest Area of India, 1991

State or District (No. of Samples)	Incidence of Fire (%)
	Frequent	Occasional	Total
Singbhum	8.7	53.4	62.1
West Champaran (N 96)	15.1	80.2	95.3
Assam(N2462)	4.3	29.5	33.8
Cooch Bihar (N 75)	15.6	35.8	49.4
There Garhwal	4.8	41.4	46.2
Koraput (N 1354)	8.6	61.0	69.6
Tati (U.P.) (N 536)	40.5	34.1	74.6
South (U.P.) (N 831)	5.2	25.1	30.3
Puruliya(N 112)	15.1	30.4	45.5
Kalahandi (N 423)	30.4	52.0	82.4
Raipur (N 809)	13.0	50.0	82.4
Shimoga (N 418)	7.5	39.2	46.7
Chikmaglur/Hassan (N 357) 11.7	31.3	43.0
Manipur (N 1880)	4.0	38.0	42.0
Tripura	6.0	83.0	89.0
Lower Subansiri	7.6	43.5	51.1
Arunchal Pradesh (N 328)	-	-	-
Upper Subansiri (N 228)	-	6.8	6.8
Sikkim (N 401)	-	33.2	33.2
Meghalaya (N 1659)	4.1	37.8	41.9
Mysore (N 338)	6.1	51.2	57.3
Darjeeling (N 130)	5.4	25.6	31.0
U.P. Hill Region (N 1235)	2.3/8.5	58.7	69.5
Shimla/Rohru/Chopal (H.P.)	2.5/6.6	51.0	60.1
Chamba, Lahaul Spiti	-	-	-
Kinnaur (N 261)	1.7/6.2	37.0	44.9
S.E. Rajasthan (N 2446)	0.5/06	22.6	23.7
Shivalik Range Of Haryana,	-	-	-
Punjab (N 145)	-/3.5	28.2	31.7
Jammu Region (N 428)	05 2.1	33.2	35.8
Dhulia (N 356)	2.3/5.6	49.7	57.6
Nasik/Thane, Raigad (N 846)	4.0	51.0	55.0
Raigarh (M.P.) (N 561)	16.0	61.0	77.0
Mean	8.9	44.2	53.1

Source: State Forest Report 1991

Grazing - Due to very high cattle population (450 million), there is severe shortage of fodder. Cattle are generally allowed to graze openly in forest areas. Even though grazing is prohibited in Protected Areas, 67% of National Parks and 83% of sanctuaries have reported incidence of grazing. Table V gives details of extent of grazing in the forest. Heavy grazing in forest areas damages trees, compacts soil, prevents regeneration and introduces diseases among wild animals. There are two main types of livestock pressures on forest areas. One is pressure of sedentary village livestock and small ruminants and other is pressure from migratory animals grazed by traditional ethnic grazers (Gujjars and Maldharies). Some of them also live in the forest with their livestock continually affecting the vegetation therein. In recent years there has been a reduction in number of nomadic grazers in response to competing demands on land. There has also been a change in the composition of livestock holdings, generally towards more cattle and small ruminants, away from buffalo which require high quality and more assured sources of fodder and water. It is not possible to remove livestock from forests but ways have to be found to decrease pressure on forests, through suitable management methods. High yielding cattle breeds can not be supported by rural poor through stall feeding in most areas without heavy subsidy, hence rotational grazing has to be given more stress in such cases in addition to other means. Further projection indicated at 3.1.7 and Table XV.

Forest Fires - Fires are a major cause of injury to forest areas. It is estimated that most forest suffer burns annually. Most of the fires in forest of India are surface or ground fires. Crown fires seldom occurs and reported from coniferous forests in Himalayas. Sometimes ground fires are also reported from forests at high altitudes. Nearly 98% of fires in the country are caused by people. Forests are set on fire by shifting cultivators by villagers, to induce flush shoots of grass for cattle, to collect NWFPs such as Mahua flowers Salseed, Tendu leaves and honey etc.. These fires often go out of control and cause massive damage to forest resources. Incidence of forest fires in various regions of the country and loss of forest wealth in the country due to forest fires are given in Table VI and VII respectively. Fires are also used in forest management, but uncontrolled fires can cause extensive damage to forest including wildlife in it. It is said "forest fire is a good servant but bad master" for the forest. Recently Government of India has realised the significance of forest fires, and initiated centrally sponsored scheme "Modern Forest Fire Control Methods" to support control and management of fires in forest areas.

Table VII - Annual Estimated Record of Forest Fires in India

Period	Estimated Average Annual
	No. of fires	Area burnt (thousand ha.)	Approximate Damage value (Mill. Rs.)
1960-61 to 1964-65	6,407	534.0	0.201
1968-69 to 1972-73	3,424	258.9	94.393
1980-81 to 1984-85	3,570	114.5	104.00
1985-86	NR	985.8	21.987
1986-87	NR	975.0	26.973
1987-88	NR	1034.3	67.897

Source: Ministry of Environment and Forest, GOI, New Delhi

Afforestation - National Forest Policy, 1988 has set a goal to bring one-third of the total geographical area of the country under forest/tree cover. Present forest cover of the country, as per State of Forest Report 1995 published by Forest Survey of India is 639,600 sq. km. (19.46%). In order to achieve the goal set by National Forest Policy within 20 years afforestation has to be undertaken at the rate of about 3.0 million hectares annually, presuming there is no deforestation in the intervening period. The current rate of annual afforestation is about 1.0-1.5 million hectares only. Comparative study of successive State of Forest Reports shows that forest cover of the country is declining at the rate of 250 sq. km. per year. Thus in the present scenario does not indicate that it would be possible to achieve National Forest Policy goal within a reasonable time limit.

While on the one hand, Government does not have sufficient resources to take up afforestation at the desired rate, on the other hand private industries are denied access to forest lands to take up captive plantations to meet their raw material requirements. It is a truly paradoxical situation. Moreover it may not be possible to adopt JFM pattern in all those degraded forest lands. Attempts by the Ministry of Environment and Forests to facilitate afforestation on degraded forest lands by private industry have not been favoured yet. Final decision on involvement of private sector in afforestation on forest lands is still to be taken.

2.2 Environmental Initiatives, Protected Areas and Wildlife Resources - Status and Trends

India's immense biological diversity can be attributed to the vast variety in physiography, climatic situations and ecological habitats. It represents two of the major biogeographic realms of the world, which are further divided into 10 distinct biogeographic regions on the basis of distributional patterns of fauna and flora. India is also one of the world's 12 identified mega-biodiversity centres and two of the 18 hot-spots, namely the Eastern Himalayas and the Western ghats. The number of plant species is estimated at more than 45,000, representing nearly 7% of the world's flora. These include over 16,000 flowering plants, of which about 30% are endemic, 64 gymnosperms, 28,43 bryophytes, 1,012 pteridophytes, 1,940 lichens, 12,480 algae and 23,000 fungi. India's faunal diversity represents about 6.4% of the world's fauna, with some 81,000 species. These include 372 mammals, 1,228 birds, 428 reptiles, 204 amphibians, 2,546 fish, 5,000 molluscs and 57,000 insects. India is also considered one of the world's 12 centres of origin of cultivated plants and there are several hundred species of wild crop relatives distributed all over the country.

The ethos of nature conservation is ingrained in India's cultural heritage. Over the centuries, people have had close linkages with nature and some of the earliest recorded conservation measures can be traced to the 3rd century BC, Nature conservation is very much a part of the peoples' culture, religion, ethics and traditions. However, in recent times, the demands of a burgeoning human and livestock population have started to exert tremendous pressures on the natural resources, leading to impairment of nature's renewable capacities in some places. A number of species and their habitats are under threat, due to habitat modification, poaching and illegal trade, and genetic erosion.

India is perhaps one of the few countries whose Constitution enshrines the concept of environmental protection and specifies this as the duty of the state as well as all the citizens. A number of legal and policy initiatives have been taken to protect and conserve forests and wildlife, with its biodiversity in general. These include the Forest Policy of 1884, 1952 and 1988, which may be due for another revision to keep pace with the changing scenario. The Indian Board for Wildlife was formed in 1952 to provide advice in the field of wildlife conservation. The Indian Forest Act of 1927, (now under revision and redrafting), the Wildlife (Protection) Act 1972, the Forest (Conservation) Act, 1980 and the omnibus Environment (Protection) Act of 1986 are important central legislations. The National Conservation Strategy and Policy Statement for Environment and Sustainable development, 1992 outlines policy actions required for the conservation of biological diversity in the country. The National Wildlife Action Plan of 1983 sets out the priorities for conservation of wildlife and wilderness areas. The National Action Plan for Biodiversity Conservation and the National Biodiversity Act are under preparation. All these various major legal and policy instruments guide the development of programmes and projects for conservation of nature and natural resources. The policies and laws under formulation are a further reflection of India's commitment to further strengthen the ongoing efforts.

India's protected areas network, whose foundation was laid towards the end of the last century, today extends over 83 national parks and 447 sanctuaries covering more than 150,000 square kilometres. This represents roughly 4.5% of the country's geographical area and about 19% of its forest area. Yet the coverage is not fully representative of the various biogeographic zones and biomes and efforts are on to declare more protected areas in the regions which are under represented, such as the Indo-Gangetic planes and Western Ghats regions. However, establishment of conventional protected areas such as national parks and sanctuaries in a densely populated country like India is not an easy proposition, especially when resource use restrictions are sought to be enforced over some areas. Therefore, proposals are currently under finalization for amending the wildlife act to provide for the creation of two additional categories of protected areas. The first is a Conservation Reserve, which would be declared in lands owned by the government without imposition of same restrictions on peoples activities, resource use rights, livelihoods as in the case of a national park or sanctuary. The other category would be a Community Reserve, which can be declared in community or private lands when the community or individual volunteers to do so. This will provide legal safeguards to community and private conservation initiatives. Thrust is also being given to integrated conservation and development projects around protected areas through the eco-development programme to mitigate the hardship of people living in and around protected areas, while at the same time enhancing their conservation status. The wildlife act amendment proposals also seek to establish Management Advisory Committee for each major protected area, with a view to ensure the participation of local communities in their management. All these measures are expected to strengthen further the protected areas network in the country.

India has also given a lead to the world in participatory approaches to forest management through the Joint Forest Management initiative. The concept continues to evolve and assimilate local variations as it spreads to more states and brings more forest area under its fold. Conservation outside the protected area network, including in wetlands, coral reefs and mangroves is another priority thrust area. The national committee set up for this purpose has identified 21 wetlands, 15 mangroves and 4 coral reef areas for conservation and scientific management. Six internationally significant wetlands have been declared as Ramsar Sites under the Convention for the Protection of Wetlands, especially as Waterfowl Habitat. In addition, five universally outstanding natural sites have been designated as World Heritage Sites under the World Heritage Convention. A number of special in-situ field conservation projects have been undertaken for endangered species and their habitats, such as project tiger, project elephant and project rhino and schemes are under formulation to cover lesser known endangered species and ecosystems outside the protected areas network. Ex-situ conservation is being promoted through zoological and botanical gardens, and the National Bureaux of plant and animal genetic resources.

While all the above mentioned efforts are on-going, the finalization of the National Action Plan for Biodiversity Conservation will give further impetus and direction to future policies and programmes. Involvement of people, sharing of benefits, capacity building, technology development are some of the major priorities which will receive special attention.

At present there are no uniform criteria for classification of protected areas, with the result that some areas of great biological values are declared as sanctuaries rather than national parks or left out all together, while some parks and sanctuaries includes areas of low biological values. Protected areas may be declared taking a holistic view of the ground situations and other parameters including predator and prey relationship and stability of prey base. Many of the sanctuaries are too small to maintain any viable wild populations, particularly of large mammals. In the current and proposed protected areas sociological sustainability issues are taken into account. Peoples' dependence on forest resources is so large that only a limited set of areas can be closed off on biodiversity grounds.

2.3 Overall wood production and utilization

2.3.1 Wood Based Industries (Including Pulp and Paper) - Status, Trends, Transitions
2.3.2 Wood Energy/Fuelwood Status, Trends and Transitions

Wood, formed of lignified, water conducting, strengthening and storage tissues, is a relatively homogeneous product derived from stems, branches and roots of trees. Based on it use, it, can be variously classified as timber, industrial wood (sawnlog, ply log, small timber, pulp wood, poles) and fuelwood. Since bamboo a non-wood, is often used in the same way as wood it is some times included in this category. Commonly bamboo is considered as poor man's timber. Sources of wood production include government forests, private lands, homesteads and farms. Only a small part of wood extracted from forests is recorded and rest collected by people residing in and around forests remain unrecorded. Authentic and reliable information regarding wood production in the country are not available and given data are estimates, which indicate only rough magnitudes. FAO Year Book of Forest Products provides production figures for various categories of wood and details for India are summarized below. It, is assumed that all what is produced is consumed, as demand is much more than production.

Table VIII - India's Wood Production Trends for the Period 1980-1994 (Unit - million cu.m.)

Production of	1980	1983	1990	1994
1	2	3	4	5
Roundwood (Total)	212.1	237.7	273.7	294.0
Fuelwood	192.4	215.6	249.3	269.2
Industrial Wood	19.7	22.1	24.4	24.8
Saw/Ply logs	15.2	16.7	18.4	18.4
Pulpwood/Particles	1.2	1.2	1.2	1.2

Source FAO (1996)

Other estimates made by various institutions/agencies/missions indicate an annual removal of fuelwood alone to be more than 300 million tonnes (over 400 million cu.m.). Against this production level, the Annual Allowable Cut from Government Forests is only 66.7 million cu.m. (54.7 million cu.m. of fuelwood and 12 million cu.m. of industrial wood). It is estimated that a sustainable cut of about 60 million cu.m. (43 to 45 million cu.m. of fuel wood and 14.15 million cu.m. industrial wood) is available outside government forests. Thus the total sustainable availability is only about 127 million cu.m., The rest of the production (about 143 million cu.m.) could have resulted from over exploitation of government and private forest resources. The bulk of the wood consumed in India, about 80 to 90%, is for burning without any value additional benefits. The estimates of fuelwood consumption in 1991 ranged between 250 to 350 million cu.m. for 1994 and range is 270 to 380 million cu.m.. Fuelwood is estimated to meet some 40% of the total energy needs of the country. About 65 to 75% of the fuel wood consumption is by households and rest by commercial and industrial units 70 to 80% of rural households and about 50% of urban households use fuelwood for cooking.

According to Forest Survey of India demand for timber (including industrial raw material, poles and posts for rural constructions and wood for making agricultural implements) was about 27 million cu.m. in 1987. A recent estimate gives the demand to be 53.67 million cu.m..

Table VIV - Estimated demand for Wood other than Fuelwood (unit million cu.m.)

Type of wood	1987	1994
1	2	3
Sawnwood	15.63	25.72
Panel Products	2.38	3.74
Pulp and Paper	6.57	11.88
Roundwood	3.00	12.33
Total:	27.58	53.67

From the foregoing we get the demand and supply factors shown below. A very small part of the roundwood demand is being met (1.3 million cu.m. in 1990, 0.29 million cu.m. in 1994) by imports

	(million cu.m.)
-Estimated Demand for wood (1994)	324 to 434
-Estimated production of wood (1994)	294
-Annual Allowable Cut from Govt forest	67
-Total sustainable cut from all sources (public and private)	127
-Range of overcut/gap	197 to 307

Demand, by definition, means the desire for a particular good or service by the means to purchase it. Demand for forest products at the national level is influenced by several factors such as: population, disposable income, literacy rate, price of the product, price of substitute and complementary goods and credit terms. Elasticity of demand for a product is based on income and price changes and depends on nature and characteristics of the product. Availability of supply influences demand e.g. increased supply reduces prices and in turn pushes demand. The derived demand on the forests for raw material is based on a recovery factor which is influenced by technology and efficiency of management. Similarly demand of fuelwood is influenced by conservation measures and efficiency of use.

National Commission of Agriculture (NCA) in its report, 1976 has given projections of raw material requirements in the year 1988 and 2000 AD, under assumptions of high and low income growth scenarios.

Table IX- Wood Requirement, Projects of NCA, 1976

Material (in millions)	1985		2000
	Low income assumption	High income assumption	Low income assumption	High income assumption
(1)	(2)	(3)	(4)	(5)
WOOD
- Saw logs and veneer logs (cu.m.)	17.20	20.10	25.80	33.50
- Pulp wood (vcu.m.)	4.70	6.10	9.60	17.70
- Other Roundwood (cu.m.)	8.10	9.10	11.60	13.30
- Total industrial	30.00	35.30	47.00	64.50
Roundwood (CU.m)
BAMBOO
for pulping (air dry t)	23.30	3.10	1.90	3.50
Other uses (air dry t)	2.10	2.10	3.50	3.50
FUELWOOD(cu.m.)	202.00	202.00	225.00	225.00

India's estimated production for 1985 reported in FAO's Year Book of Forest Products is partially comparable to the NCA projection based on low level assumption.

Table X - India's wood Production, 1985

Product	Quantity (million cu.m.)
1	2
-Saw logs and veneer logs	18. 30
-Pulpwood	1.20*
-Other roundwood	4.40
-Total industrial roundwood	23.90
-Fuelwood	225.10

Source FAO Note:
* Bamboo used for pulping has not been reported.

Consumption requirement estimates of wood products and related raw materials with different assumptions and horizons made by different agencies present a considerable range of values.

Three different estimates by various studies under NFAP have projected fuelwood demand for the year 2001 as 187.2, 355.57 and 383.58 million tonnes. A recent, study by paper industry has made paper projections for the year 2010 AD. It has projected fibre resource consumption for the paper industry for the year 9010 AD as 9.93 million tonnes (consisting of 2.18 million tonnes of wood pulp, 3.07 million tonnes of non-wood pulp and 4.07 million tonnes of recycled fibres).

Estimated Future Timber demand: A study under NFAP gives following demand projections for timber in India.

Table XI - Future Timber Demand (million cu.m.)

Industry	Year
	1994	2000	2015
1	2	3	4
- Sawnwood	25.72	26.73	54.97
- Paper & Pulp	11.88	14.84	41.09
- Panel Products	3.74	6.00	25.55
- Roundwood	12.33	11.88	20.55
Total:	56.67	59.46	136.98

This may be compared with figures for projected consumption for India in the FAO Provisional Outlook for Forest Products Consumption, Production and Trade to 2010, published in 1997. While the study has estimated total industrial wood demand projection for the year 2000, itself as 59.46 million cu.m. corresponding projections by FAO for the year 2010 range between 31.43 to 35.96 million cu.m..

Table XII - Projected wood and wood products CONSUMPTION in India (Million c.um./million tonnes)

Products	1994	2000	2010
1	2	3	4
-Roundwood (total)	281.551	302.785	337.012
-Fuelwood/Charcoal	256.485	275.951	307.762
-Ind. roundwood	25.066	26.834	29.251
-Other ind. roundwood	5.234	5.833	6.712
-Sawnwood & sleepers	17.458	17.517	17.612
Wood based panels	0.410	0.554	0.778
-Total fibre furnish	2.911	3.868	6.070
-Recovered paper	0.753	1.117	2.005
-Other fibres	1.096	1.398	2.154
-Wood pulp	1.062	1.353	1.911
-Paper & Paper board	2.865	3.837	5.862

Source: FAO 1997

Supply can be defined as the quantity of a good or service available for sale at a specified price. While physical supply is a function of, among other things, land availability, land productivity, level of technology and intensity of inputs. Economic supply is influenced by the price in comparison to the cost of production. Economic supply is also influenced by the price of alternative products produced on the same land. Demand for a product can also influence its supply by increasing prices. Other factors influencing supply include: government policies regarding forest land use, deforestation control, withdrawals of forest land, sustainability criteria, size of existing inventories, yields and rotations, efficiency in the forestry sector in comparison to other land using sectors, efficiency of forest, harvesting, extent of forestry in non-forest lands i.e. agroforestry, farm forestry, estate crops (e.g. rubber, coffee, coconut use of secondary species and small dimension materials, nature and intensity of people's participation, area under industrial plantations, addressing of issues such as land tenure for tribal people and tariffs on imports and exports. Each of these will have significant influence on alternative scenarios.

Currently, supply of goods from natural forests has drastically reduced. There has been a major shift, from high quality timber from natural forests to timber growth in plantations, uncertainty of quality and yield of Plantation products, uncertainty about the future protection against legal and illegal forest land withdrawals. India's future supply scenario of goods will to a great degree depend on the extent and quality of manmade forests, supplemented by non-damaging uses of natural forests for goods (particularly NWFPs) and services, NWFPs will play a major role in generating income from forestry sector in future. Regarding wood supply, the projected production in the FAO Provisional Outlook for Forest Products Consumption, Production and Trade to 2010, published in 1997 indicates that the projected demands can be met.

Table XIII - Projected Wood and Wood Products PRODUCTION in India (million cu.m./million tonnes)

Products	1994	2000	2010
1	2	3	4
-Roundwood (total)	281.307	302.696	337.069
-Fuelwood/Charcoal	256.515	275.994	307.837
-Ind. round-wood	24.792	26.702	29.232
-Other ind. roundwood	5.234	5.833	6.712
-Sawnwood & sleepers	17.460	17.511	17.586
-Wood based panels	0.442	0.570	0.784
-Total fibre furnish	2.519	3.722	6.006
-Recovered paper	0.531	1.061	1.974
-Other fibres	1.096	1.398	2.153
-Wood pulp	0.892	1.263	1.879
-Paper & Paper board	2.626	3.621	5.734

Source: FAO 1997

Demand and Supply Balance - Exports and imports influence and are influenced by, the supply and demand situation. Simply put a gap in supply can be met. by imports and a surplus in supply can be exported FAO's Provisional Outlook for Forest Products indicate that in a low growth scenario, product supply will have to be augmented by a comparatively higher level of imports, leading to drain on foreign exchange reserve, whereas trade balance situation becomes considerably better in the high growth scenario.

Table XIV - Projected Wood and Wood Products IMPORT, India (million cu.m./million tonnes)

Products	1994	2000	2010
1	2	3	4
-Roundwood (total)	0.285	0.152	0.053
-Fuelwood/charcoal	-	-	-
-Ind. roundwood	0.285	0.152	0.053
-Other ind. Roundwood	-	-	-
-Sawnwood & sleepers	0.006	0.011	0.028
-Wood based panels	0.011	0.007	0.003
-Total fibre furnish	0.393	0.147	0.064
-Recovered paper	0.222	0.056	0.031
-Other fibres	0.001	0.001	0.001
Wood Pulp	0.170	0.090	0.032
-Paper & Paper board	0.258	0.237	0.154

Source: FAO 1997:

Table XV - Projected Wood and Wood Products EXPORT, India (million cu.m./million tonnes)

Products	1994	2000	2010
1	2	3	4
-Roundwood (total)	0.041	0.063	0.110
-Fuelwood/charcoal	0.030	0.044	0.076
-Ind. roundwood	0.011	0.020	0.034
-Other ind. roundwood	-	-	-
-Sawnwood & sleepers	000.83	0.004	0.002
-Wood based panels	0.043	0.623	0.008
-Total fibre furnish	-	-	-
-Recovered paper	-	-	-
-Other fibres	0.001	0.001	0.001
- Wood pulp	-	-	-
-Paper & Paper board	0.019	0.021	0.026

Source: FAO 1997

2.3.1 Wood Based Industries (Including Pulp and Paper) - Status, Trends, Transitions

The primary and integrated wood processing industries produce a large number of products including sawnwood, veneer, plywood, other panel products, wood pulp/paper, parquets, shingles, toys, bobbins, sports goods, boats, carts, musical instruments and pencils. There are few large and many medium & small scale forest based industries in India. Most of the industries are in private sector. Actual number of units involved in wood processing are quite large. Table XVI given below provides details of medium and large scale wood based industries. It is estimated that currently India's wood based industries consume between 24 to 30 million cu.m. of raw materials.

Table XVI - Medium and large Scale Forest Based Industries.

Industry	No. of units
Sawmills	23,000 (including small units)
Pulp and paper
a)Paper Mills	21
b)Newsprint	4
c)Rayon grade pulp	5
d)Paper grade pulp	1
e)Paper board	305
Veneer and plywood
a)Plywood	61
b)Veneer	14
c)Smaller units	341
Block boards and flushdoors	98
Particle Board	11
Fibre Boards and Medium Density Fibre Board	5
Safety matches	5

More than 90% of India's wood based products are presently manufactured in private sector. The production trend in major wood based industries does not show any conspicuous increase because of raw material limitations though demand is always in the rise.

Table XVII - Output of Major Wood based Processing Industries

Products	1980	1993	1990	1994
1	2	3	4	5
Sawnwood/sleepers (million cu.m.)	10.98	14.49	17.46	17.46
Wood based panels (million cu.m.)	0.25	0.384	0.442	0.442
Plywood (million cu.m.)	-	0.300	0.360	0.360
Particle board (million cu.m.)	-	0.032	0.032	0.032
Fibre board (million cum)	-	0.50	0.046	0.046
Wood Pulp (million tonnes)	0.34	0.768	0.989	1.147
Paper and paper board (million tonnes)	0.96	1.481	2.185	2.626

Source FAO 1996

Sawnwood - Of the total number of saw mills, almost 90%, are small and have a capacity of 3,000 cu.m. per year. Annual production capacity is shown as 27.12 million cu.m. and actual production is 64% of the installed capacity. Conversion efficiency is low and conversion losses are quite considerable. Main uses of sawnwood produced are: Construction (28%), box wood (18%), joinery (27%), furniture (11%), sleepers (8%) and others 8%. According to a forest conservation principle use of wooden sleepers in the railways has been reduced drastically. Seasoning and preservative treatment of sawnwood is not common. Air seasoning of sawnwood is carried out by some 470 mills and only 7% of the total sawnwood is kiln seasoned. Pressure impregnation facility is available only in 118 units. Even though the service life of sawnwood can be enhanced by 3 to 5 times, only 0.4% of the sawnwood is treated with wood preservatives.

Paper has a great impact essentially on our daily lives and "as well as on the society so much so that we take it for granted. While paper is core requirement of society, the forests are the lungs of society. Paper is a Primary medium of communication. It is an essential vehicle for literacy and progress. About 1.2% of world paper production is consumed by a populous country like India. The relevance of paper assumes greater significance with the efforts and emphasis of Govt. on education and literacy drive. Paper industry is one of oldest in India and highly capital intensive industry. Paper industry utilizes a renewable raw materials unlike other industries like mining and oil. Paper industry generates 2% of world trade and the demand of paper is ever rising. Indian paper industries are small in international standards. (India produces pulp (including rayon grade pulp) and different grades of paper such as newsprint, writing and printing paper, carton boards, kraft liner, fluting medium and speciality paper. Indian Paper industry consists of 380 mills with capacities ranging from 1,000 tonnes/year to 10,000 tonnes/year. Production capacity of paper and paper board is 1.9 million tonnes. Actual current production is about 2.6 million tonnes). The average size of a paper mill in India is 10,400 TPA as against 85,000 TPA in Asia-Pacific and 300,000 TPA in Europe/America. The per capita consumption of paper in the country is about 4 Kg, being the least in Asia Pacific region (Japan 239 Kg., China 22 Kg.) while world average is 45.6 Kg. The following tabulated data give an insight in to paper industry situation in the country.

Table XVIII - Installed capacity and production of Paper in India based on raw materials types. (In million tonnes)

Type	No. of Mills	Installed capacity	Percentage capacity	Production	Percentage Production
(1)	(2)	(3)	(4)	(5)	(6)
Forest based	28	1.449	37	0.95	38
Agro based	111	1.240	31	0.91	36
Others (Wastepaper)	241	1.265	32	0.65	26
Total:	380	3.954	100	2.51	100

Source: Development council for Pulp, Paper and Allied Industries.

According to one estimate the bigger mills use forest raw materials (wood and bamboo), small ones use agricultural residues, waste paper and rags. The current mix of raw material in the industry is: bamboo and hardwood (53%), bagasse and straw (23%) waste pear (15%) market pulp and others (9%). However, there is potential for using non-wood cellulosic raw material.

Despite an increasing demand of paper, the industry is plagued by raw material shortage. Growth of paper industry can be achieved through economies of scale, improved technology, value added products and integration with captive plantations. There has been continuous debate on the issue without a concrete decision. It is one of the ways to reverse the process of the degradation and regreen degraded forest land thus utilizing scares resources to best use of its productivity. A collective decision with strong will power at the highest level can increase the productivity of the degraded forest areas will improved modern technology. This strategic effort of the Government, People and Industry joining hands together can be a workable and apparent solution for the funds starved forestry sector. Certainly this is one of the strong areas of partnership and cooperation between Government and Private Sector from which benefit will flow to the people in general as well as to the other partners.

Table XIX - Demand Projection paper, paper board and newsprint

Periods	Total demand as per nev. council for pulp paper & Allied Industries	Total Demand as per Expert Group constituted by the Industry
1	2	3
1994-95	3.161	3.278
2000-01	4.112	4.950
2005-06	5.045	6.700
2010-11	6.297	8.550

Table XX - Paper Production from Indigenous Raw Materials

Year	Forest based		Paper production		Total possible production of paper
	Raw mat.	Paper prod.	Bagasse	Straw	Waste paper
(1)	(2)	(3)	(4)	(5)	(6)	(7)
1994-95	3.146	1.210	0.560	0.250	0.388	2.408
2000-01	3.210	1.235	1.090	0.250	0.683	3.258
2005-06	3.210	1.235	1.636	0.250	1.040	4.161
2010-11	3.210	1.235	1.963	0.250	1.462	4.910

*Source- Expert Group Constituted by the Industry.

India is a fibre deficient country and therefore, dependence on all kinds of raw materials such as agro-based residue and waste paper. There will also be deficit in spite of all the above efforts which can be overcome by creation of man made forest and captive pulp wood plantation. To avoid large scale import of pulp and save valuable foreign exchange. Plantation/afforestation is an acceptable way to grow trees for several purposes including supply of raw materials for forest based industries. Plantations need not be a monoculture operation and it can be raised with different compatible species as found in the nature in that particular agro climatic and physiographic zone. Plantation can be designed and managed in environmentally and social acceptable manner.

Table XXI - Demand and supply of paper based on domestic Raw materials

Year	Demand as per Table 3/Col-3	Possible Production as per Table 4/Col. 7	Shortfall
1	2	3	4
1994-95	3.278	2.408	0.870
2000-01	4.950	3.258	1.692
2005-06	6.700	4.161	2,539
2010-11	8.550	4.910	3.640

Table XXII - Demand and Supply of fuelwood and industrial timber (As Per 1995 figure)

	Demand	Supply	Shortfall	Projected demand
				2000	2010
1	2	3	4	5	6
-Fuel wood	235	40	195	287	345
-Industrial timber (Industrial Roundwood, sawn timber, paper & paper board woodbased panel)	27	12	15	55	77

Source: Centre for Science and Environment, New Delhi -July 1995 and FAO estimate.

Wood based panel covers a number of Products resulting from primary processing of wood such as plywood (including veneer), blockboard, particle board, medium density fibre (MDF) board, wet process hard board, veneered oriented strandboard, wood-wool cement, board and fibre cement panels. Globally the range of wood based panel products, both structural and non-structural has grown dramatically during the last 20 years. But no such development has taken place in India. India essentially produces 3 types of products: plywood including blockboards and flush doors, fibreboard and particle boards. Primarily due to difficulty in obtaining raw material, capacity utilization has been low; 50% for plywood, 41% for decorative veneers, 41.5% for particle board and 60% for fibreboard. Already the veneer industry is accepting smaller girth peeler logs, but this has not improved capacity utilization. There are 61 units of Medium and large Scale Sector Plywood Industry, 11 units of Particle Board Industry, 3 units of Hard Board Industry and 11 units of Medium Density Fibre hoard Industry. The requirement of timber to run all the mills at its installed capacity is 2.4 million Cu.m. At 1995 actual production level the total. requirement was 1.8 million cu.m. of timber. The estimated requirements of timber for these industries in 2000 AD and 2010 AD are 5 million cu.m. and 10 million cu.m. respectively.

India's industrial policy has long been geared towards protecting domestic industries and forest industries are no exception. Raw materials for larger industries are supplied from government forests under long term contracts at prices much below market values. Government also protected domestic industries by putting tariff and non-tariff barriers. National Forest Policy, 1988 recommends that supply of raw materials to forest based industries should cease, however past commitments are still being honoured. Industrial sector was liberalised in India in 1991-92, but forest sector is still highly regulated. New regulations support small scale industries and industries which move away from woody raw material. In order to bridge shortages in raw material requirements, import of forest raw material has been liberalised. Export of timber and other non-processed forest products has been banned.

While in the past government policies have stimulated growth of forest based industries, supply of raw materials to industry, at below market prices, has resulted in transfer of resources from government to private industries. It has also encouraged waste and forest degradation. Low raw material prices have also not encouraged private producers to plant for industrial uses. The pressure to meet raw material needs to industry has often led to replacement of natural forests by monoculture plantations, thus alienating local communities depending upon multiple products generated by mixed forests.

National Forest Policy, 1988 recommends forest based industries should meet their raw material requirements by entering into direct agreements with farmers. This has put enormous pressure on a yet partly developed farm forestry sector. Farmers could supply a large part of short rotation pulp, small timber and peeler logs for core veneer, if remunerative prices are offered. They are unlikely to produce substantial amounts of longer rotation products for sawn timber and face veneer. The effect of industrial and trade liberalisation has led to sharp increase in import of forest raw material. Import of logs increased from Rs 980 million in 1986-87 to Rs 4,220 million in 1991 and to Rs 5,872 million in 1992.

Paper industry can be considered as relatively competitive as compared to other forest based industries. There are inefficiencies in both private as well as public sectors due to industries being small, highly protected and operating with obsolete equipment and old technologies.

Farm forestry is playing an important role in bridging demand supply gap in forest products. It is estimated that approximately 40% forest products are being supplied from outside forest areas. Though Farm forestry in India is still developing, a number of factors are hampering its growth. Some of these are given below.

(a) Supply of subsidised seedlings results in planting of inferior planting stock by farmers and thus low returns to them. It is discouraging growth of private nurseries which could supply good planting material at reasonable and realistic prices. Free or subsidised seedlings encourage wastage and planting of too many trees per hectares.

(b) In most of the states farmers have to go through a long and cumbersome process to obtain permission for felling and transportation of trees. In many states rules and regulations have been relaxed to encourage private tree planting.

(c) Unlike agriculture marketing system in respect of forest products is still very weak and needs to be strengthened.

Government regulates trade for many of the more important NWFPs to protect interests of tribals and rural poor living in and around forest areas and also to generate revenue for state treasury. Commercial NWFPs are collected by local people and are sold to local traders, government agents, tribal cooperatives depending on the product and the state. The various cooperatives established in tribal areas have not developed strong leadership and have often been hampered by administrative and financial constraints. Local population would benefit by taking on larger share of low level processing of NWFPs. A study of NWFP enterprises that employ large numbers of women show that they are being increasingly marginalized and men are capturing higher wage opportunities in collection, processing and marketing of NWFPs.

2.3.2 Wood Energy/Fuelwood Status, Trends and Transitions

Firewood, agricultural wastes and animal dung constitute the major biomass energy sources in India, accounting for approximately 75% of the energy consumed by households in 1978-79. A major portion of this, about 85%, was consumed in villages. On an average between 90-95% of energy consumed in rural areas is constituted of biomass based fuels. On a coal equivalent basis, firewood and charcoal together represented 62% of the non-commercial energy consumption in 1978-79. At a national aggregate level, firewood and charcoal alone accounted for 46% of the total energy consumed in India (NCAER 1985). Woodfuel is consumed in several forms - logs, billets, twigs, wood shavings, sawdust etc.. Forest areas are estimated to contribute as much as 46% of the total firewood. Much of the firewood, removed from forests, however, is unrecorded. The dependence of people on forests for firewood is not uniform and varies considerably from one state to another. There are large variations not only among states but also within the states from one locality to another. The distribution and location of forests influence considerably, the pattern of firewood use in different parts of the country. A revealing fact that has emerged in the past few decades of study of energy demand supply scenario, is that despite a major investment in the commercial energy sector which was thought to shift fuel dependence from non-commercial sources, has failed to meet the desired effect. Even today, annual demand for Firewood is estimated to be 201 million tonnes (FSI 1996). Another surprising revelation is that though bulk of consumption of biofuels in the country is within villages, they still meet around 43% of energy requirements of urban households. Continued use of firewood for a variety of purposes other than household demands also needs to be looked into. Small restaurants, industries like bricks and tile manufacturing units, sugar, tea and handicrafts and religious rituals are some of the major consumers in the urban centres. The ever growing scarcities of firewood coupled with continuous price hike have created a special class of professionals handling the tasks of collection, transportation and marketing of firewood from forest and non forest areas, adding further to resource degradation problem.

A study on demand and supply of firewood in the country, done by Forest Survey of India in 1996 shows following important features:

· Demand for Firewood has increased over past few decades due to two factors. The first is rise in population, which has been increasing at the rate of 2.1% annually. The second is the trend in rising consumption of firewood which rose by 7% (from 54.57% in 1978-79 to 61.6% in 1992-93) in 14 years, an increase of 0.5% every year in the firewood demand due to lesser availability or alternate use of animal dung and agricultural residues.

· In the year 1996, the annual household consumption of firewood in the rural areas of forested districts in the country is around 78 million tonnes for a population of 184 million.

· In the year 1996, 74 million tonnes of firewood is consumed in non-forest rural areas by the rural population of 513 million.

· It is found that around 10 million tonnes of firewood is required in 1996 for urban household sector of the country.

· Approximately 51% of the firewood comes from forest areas and balance 49% from outside forest areas.

· In the year 1996, demands for firewood by small hotels/restaurants, cottage industries and religious rituals including cremation were 10, 25 and 4 million tonnes respectively.

· Average annual per capita consumption of firewood varies from 25 kg in urban areas of Punjab to 1299 kg in forest rich areas of Nagaland.

· Total annual demand for household sector (both rural and urban) is expected to increase to 180 and 199 million tonnes by the year 2001 and 2006 AD.

According to this study, as against total annual demand of firewood of 201 million tonnes in 1996, the sustainable productive capacity of India's forests is only 17 million tonnes.

Potential Firewood Production - The production of wood from under man-made plantations under rainfed conditions in India varies from 3 to 10 tonnes per hectares per year. It is low in arid areas and high in wet areas. Transportation of firewood over long distances is not economical due to its high bulk and low value nature. Firewood should, therefore, be produced nearer to the consumption centres. With an average production of 4 tonnes/hectare/year the total land area needed to produce 200 million tonnes of firewood is about 50 million hectares. Culturable wastelands cover 17.1 million hectares while fallow land is spread over 9.6 million hectares. Thus about 26.7 million hectares of degraded land is available within the cultivated lands. This land will be available in scattered patches. If firewood farming is developed as a business, it is quite possible to grow firewood over these areas. Presently these lands are used as grazing lands. Growing firewood will be ecologically and socially a better use of this land. The land ceiling laws will also need to be amended to exempt their application in tree farming areas to encourage all interested in the job of tree farming and raising plantations.

2.4 Non-Wood Forest Products, Status and Trends

India is a veritable store house of Non-Wood Forest Products (NWFPs). About 16,000 recorded plant species are found in India; about 3,000 plant species yield one or the other NWFPs [(which are also called Non-Timber Forest Products (NTFP) or Minor Forest Products (MFP)]. NWFPs include a vast wealth of available from the broad spectrum of biomass obtained from the leaves, flowers, fruits, seeds, stems, roots and barks providing for most of the human needs of food, shelter clothing and a wide range of other items for local use and income generation. NWFP in India can be broadly classified into following categories.

1. Edible plants and plant parts
2. Fatty oils (edible and non-edible)
3. Exudate Gums, Resins, Gum-resins, Oleo-resins, Gum-oleo-resins and Seed gums

a) Essential oils
b) for pharmaceutical operations
c) for perfumery
d) for industrial uses

4. Medicinal plants, spices and insecticides
5. Tans and Dyes (including Katha and Cutch)
6. Fibres and Flosses (including grasses not yielding essential oils)
7. Bamboos and Canes
8. Miscellaneous NWFPs

a) of plant origin: Fodder, Platter, Bidi wrapper leaves, Soapnuts, Beads for necklaces etc..
b) of animal origin: Ambrette, Honey, Wax, Silks, Lac and Shellac, Ivory, Kasturi, Horns, Hides and skins etc..
c) of mineral origin: Stones, Mica, Graphites and other minor minerals etc..

NWFPs are people's products and their use form an integral component of not only of local economies and culture from time immemorial but also find their way in trade. NWFPs are significant source of subsistence products, employment and household incomes in areas near forests. NWFP production and use is high in a number of states: Andhra Pradesh, Madhya Pradesh, Maharashtra, Orissa, West Bengal, and seven North Eastern states. Annual employment is estimated at over 2 million person years. Customarily, majority of workers in NWFP related economy are women.

In fact NWFPs have been a great source of sustenance to the people living in and around forests during pinch season and helps them to tide over the crisis of survival. Tribal populations depend heavily on NWFPs for income and subsistence. Since tribals have been already shifted towards more and more marginal areas, where agriculture yields are lower and more uncertain, consequently, reliance on NWFPs are large. Fortunately, the availability of edible NWFPs is highest during lean summer period. In four states rich in NWFPs income from sale of these items account for 5 to 55% of the seller's total income. About 30% of the diet of Maharashtra based tribal groups living near forests is derived from forest products such as leaves, vegetables, tubers, flowers, fruits, nuts, bamboo shoots, small animals and honey. West Bengal tribal groups rehabilitated in forest areas of South Bengal collect 27 commercial products, 39 plant food products and 47 medicines for human or animal use.

NWFPs also help in maintenance of biodiversity and conservation of the eco-systems if the natural resources are sustainably harvested without damage to growing stock. NWFPs have been utilised for local use and trade without any coordinated account. Therefore accurate data is not available for most NWFPs except for products, the trade of which has been organised or nationalised. Annual production figures for some commercially important production NWFPs are given in Table XXIII.

Revenues earned by forest departments from NWFP has been rising steadily, with more use of hitherto unknown plant species for human good. The recorded revenue during 1958-59 which was only Rs 100 million for entire country which increased to about Rs 20,000 million in early 1990s. NWFP have been estimated to account for nearly 40% of state forest revenues.

Export trade statistics also increase in foreign exchange earnings through export of NWFPs. Trends of NWFP export from India are given in Table XXIV. NWFP form about 70% of the share of total value obtained from export of Forest Products.

Table XXIII - Annual Production of NWFPs estimated during 1992-93

Name of the Products		Annual production (in tonnes)
Wild edible products		101,200
Myrobalans		132,250
Sal seeds		7,097,000
Sal oil		23,000
Mahua seeds		697,600
Mahua oil		28,750
Neem seed		115,000
Other seeds		57,500
Essential Oil i. Palmarosa oil		16,000
	ii. Eucalyptus oil	150
	iii. Sandal wood oil	160
	iv. Lemon grass oil	950
	v. Others	300
Total essential oils		3,160
Gum Karaya		15,000
Ghatti and other gums		3,500
Resin from pines		45,000
Rosin		24,000
Turpentine (litres)		600,000
Katha		5,750
Total Tans and Dyes including cutch		222,900
Bamboos and Canes		4,716,600
Fibres and Flosses		15,000
Grasses other than oil producing		80,000
Bidi leaves/Tendu leaves		360,000
Lac		30,000

Source: NTFP study under NFAP

Although NWFPs are an integral part of lives of the people and provide for diverse needs of local people including tribals. They are also a major source of revenue for forest departments and also contribute towards foreign trade. NWFP development has not been receiving adequate attention of planners and decision makers. If current degradation of majority of NWFPs is to be avoided and true potential of NWFPs is to be realised, lot of stress has to be given to replenishment of their stock, scientific and sustainable harvesting of NWFPs, development of marketing, gradation, value addition and standardisation of forest products. In the years to come some of the hitherto unknown MFP/NTFP/NWFP will be getting into the limelight because of their importance in trade and medicine.

Table XXIV - Trend of NTFP Exports from India through decades (In crores Rs.)

Sl. No.	Division of NTFPs	1960-6	1970-71	1980-8	1990-91
1.	Crude veg materials including gums and resins, lac and Shellac	15.97	34.01	1.16	37.58
2.	Live trees and other plant roots, flower, Ede veg. Nuts	N.A	N.A	N.A	702.91
3.	Fruit, Vegetables, Nuts, Tubers	26.0	65.0	19.71	29.71
4	Rubber fabricated materials	0.34	8.86	25.77	248.56
5	Oil seeds, Nuts, Kernels	5.13	5.96	60.49	282.82
5a	Vegetable oils	8.51	7.03	14.70	-
5b	Oil & Fats processed, wax of animal & veg. Orgin.	1.25	0.62	4.37	87.63
6	Medicinal & Pharma products	0.99	8.46	67.42	767.59
7	Spices	16.63	38.80	111.36	NA
8	Essential oils, perfumes	4.14	3.81	7.25	280.36
9	Dyeing & Tanning Exts.	0.14	0.35	0.75	423.84
10	Veg plaiting materials	-	-	-	33.78
11	Veg fibres (incl. Jute etc.)	1.55	4.28	5.33	205.42
12	Basket-ware, wicker work	-	-	-	0.13
13	Fuel wood charcoal	NA	NA	0.66	25.67
14.	Coal, Coke, Briquettes	3.34	4.01	NA	NA
15	Cork manufacture	NA	NA	0.24	0.29
16	Pulp & Waste paper	NA	1.01	0.39	NA
17	Silk	0.39	0.60	0.21	NA
18	Hides. Skins & Fur skins	10.02	3.97	0.69	811.86
	Grand Total	94.55	186.77	320.50	4,198.11
	NTFPs contribution to total exports from India (%)	15%	12.3	4.79	13%

Source: NTFP study under NFAP

2.5 Services of Forests: Status and Trends

In India forests form an integral part of the people. Forests provide a number of services to the people at large. Some of the important services rendered by forests are education, recreation, research and other social, religious and spiritual needs. Forests play an important role in ecotourism, particularly in protected areas, for both local as well as foreign tourists. From the days of yore forests are a part of the ethos and folklore of Indian people.

Since ages forests in India are considered ideal location for spiritual pursuits. In the past sages and wise people used to go to forests for penance and to seek spiritual development. Peaceful and natural surroundings in forests were considered ideal for these noble activities. Even now religious people seek refuge in hills and forests for spiritual bliss and enlightenment. Many communities protect and maintain patches of natural forests as sacred roves. These sacred groves revered by people and are usually considered as home of religious deities. Sacred groves are used by entire community for religious celebrations on special occasions. Although with the development and fast pace of life such beliefs are gradually diminishing but in hills and remote areas these groves are still sacred and shall continue to be so for considerable time in future. In some parts of NE States these are very sacrosanct and have been kept untouched and inviolate.

In big cities and metros urban and recreation forestry is increasingly becoming more popular with passage of time. Roadside and avenue plantations are being taken up in big and small cities, which not only help in absorbing pollutants emitted by vehicles but also keep drivers and pedestrians happy and cheerful. With appropriate choice of shady and flowering trees avenue plantations contribute towards beautification of urban centres. Establishment of mixed forests near urban centres are also very popular. These forests are used by individuals and families for picnics, outings for recreation during weekends and holidays, where people can refresh themselves and escape tensions of urban life. Recently the concepts of "Smriti Vans/Vatikas" or "Memorial Forests" is also becoming popular. Individuals or families plant seedlings, on memorable occasions by paying a nominal fee. These seedlings/trees are maintained by forest departments or local bodies like Municipality, Pancahayat and a plaque indicating the names and occasion is fixed on or near these trees. Individuals/families visit "Smriti Vans" and "their trees" periodically. In order to create awareness and to attract attention of people towards importance of forests and trees. "Van Mahotsava" (Forest Festival) is celebrated during 1st week of July every year since 1952. During the Van Mahotsava various tree plantings and publicity campaigns are organised by various government and non-government agencies. Planting of trees are being undertaken on many states ceremonies and other occasions. It is important to protect the plants after ceremonial planting to serve the real purpose.

Indian forests offer excellent opportunity for eco-tourism. As forests in India have wide diversity and are habitats for wide array of diverse flora and fauna. Besides wildlife tourism Indian forests may also provide immense scope for nature and adventure tourism. Development of eco-tourism also offers opportunities for development of local economy and developing stakes of local people in preservation of natural resources. However since National Forest Policy has very strong conservation bias, foresters in India are adopting very cautious approach towards development of eco-tourism. Conservation of nature and natural habitats are given over riding preference over development of tourism. Many of the national parks and sanctuaries are already on international tourist maps. Prominent among these are Gir and Flamingo city in Gujarat; Kaziranga in Assam; Valley of Flowers and Corbett National Park in Uttar Pradesh; Kanha National Park in Madhya Pradesh; Keola Deo and Ranthambhore National Parks in Rajasthan; Dachigram National Park in Jammu and Kashmir; Sunderban Tiger Reserve in West Bengal etc. Many more national parks such as Dudhwa in UP; Simlipal, Bhitarkanika and Chilka lake in Orissa; Mudumalai in Tamilnadu; Wyanad in Kerala; Bandipur in Karnataka and Marine National Parks in Gulf of Cambay and Andaman and Nicobar Islands have considerable potential for promoting eco-tourism. Himalayas and Western Ghats offer excellent opportunities for development of adventure tourism. Recently Government of India has developed draft policy for promotion of wildlife tourism, Indian forests, due to their wide variety and rich biodiversity, offer considerable scope for research. Forestry research has been given high priority in National Forest Policy, 1988.

India has a long tradition of forestry research. Forest Research Institute (FRI) was established at Dehradun in 1906. Forestry research in India received a boost in 1986 when FRI was upgraded as Indian Council of Forestry Research and Education (ICFRE). At present ICFRE is involved in various forestry research activities through 9 institutes and 2 centres spread in various regions of the country. Major objectives of ICFRE are:

· To undertake, aid, promote and coordinate forestry research education and its applications.

· To develop and maintain National Library and Information Centre for forestry and allied sciences.

· To act as a clearing house for research and general information relating to forest and wildlife.

· To develop forest extension programmes and propagate the same through mass media, audio-visual aids and extension machinery.

· To provide consultancy services in the field of forestry research, education and training and allied sciences.

In addition to ICFRE few states have their own forest research institutes to focus largely on applied research, while these tasks in other states is done by forest department silviculturists. Many State Agricultural Universities (SAUs) are also involved in forestry related research. Research and education related to wildlife is carried out at Wildlife Institute of India (WII) at Dehradun.

Research done by these institutes is mostly academic research. Research links between ICFRE, State FRIs and SAUs are virtually non-existent and much research is of limited usefulness to field problems. Even when useful results are found they are seldom extended to and applied in the field. The research function needs to be strengthened by need based research to increase productivity and move from deficit to surplus in forest products. The keys to that lie in increasing: (a) the research function (create senior posts, adopt research findings etc.); (b) the qualification and continuity of research staff; and (c) links with other research activities. Forest field staff need to be involved in deciding research topics. Some specialised research tasks could be contracted to private institutions and SAUs. The first priority for technological support should be to improve the quality of planting material. These technologies have been already standardised in other countries and require adaptation rather than experimentation. The second priority should be rehabilitation and re vegetation of degraded forests, in this artificial natural regeneration models should be given preference over plantation models. Third priority should be to provide research and technological support to improve practices for high productivity plantations (commercial species) and to develop new agroforestry models. The fourth priority should be to develop extension to transfer the information to local people and farmers a kind of "Lab to Land" system. Within these broad priorities each state would have to set their own priorities based on local conditions. Marketing and sociological research have been completely neglected at present and should be given adequate attention in future.

2.6 Institutions and Policies

National Forest Policy, 1988 envisages involvement of local people in protection, management and development of local people. India is one of the few countries which is pioneer in actively associating local people in protection and management of forests and in giving concrete shape to concept of Joint Forest Management (JFM).

During late 1970s and early 1980s a number of experiments were done in the area of promoting active involvement of people by few imaginative and dedicated forest officers in close association with local NGOs. Some of these experiments were very successful such as Sukhomajri in Haryana, Arabari in West Bengal, Harda in Madhya Pradesh, several cases in Orissa etc. In this process the depleting village commons which is a common property resource (CPR) has been developed to be more productive and beneficial to the villagers. These experiments encouraged conversion of "open access resources" (OAR) into "voluntary restricted resources" (VRR) by developing stakes of local people in development of forest resources. In Sukhomajri local people were organised into "Hill Resource Management Societies (HRMS)". HRMS protected forests and restricted grazing of cattle in catchment areas of Sukhomajri lake. It resulted soil conservation and increased water retention in upper reaches of hills. It not only increased agriculture production downhill but also helped in maintenance of adequate water in the lake. All the villagers, irrespective of size of their land holdings and even landless persons, were given equal share in increased water supply, people were entitled to transfer or even sell their water share to others. It led to increased agricultural yield for farmers, improved supply of fodder for grazers and increased general water supply. In Arabari highly degraded Sal (Shorea robusta) forests were regenerated through the protection provided by Forest Protection Committees (FPC's). Local people were provided free rights for collection of NWFP's and 25% share in final harvest of the crop.

These and many other such experiments in different parts of the country led to serious rethinking by policy makers. National Forest Policy, 1988 formally recognised importance of associating local people in protection, management and development of forests and officially adopted this strategy of Forest management which has been commonly known as Joint Forest Management (JFM).

Government of India issued detailed guidelines to all States and Union Territories on 1st June, 1990 giving a framework for developing JFM. A copy of the guide lines are placed at Annex-II. It basically involves organising local people in FPCs associating them in managing degraded forests through a well developed "micro plan" and allowing FPCs and its members share in usufructs on well defined principles of equity and gender. A comparative chart showing FPC structure and usufruct sharing of various states adopted so far is at Annex-III.

JFM is still a developing concept. There are a number of issues which needs to be paid attention if JFM is to become a vehicle for development of forest resources and empowerment of people living in and around forest areas.

· At present entire JFM mechanism is based on administrative resolutions and does not have any legal support. If the people are to be genuinely encouraged, on long term basis, for protection and development of forest resources, their rights should have legal basis. Indian Forest Act, 1927 which is being revised, is giving attention to this aspect.

· Presently under JFM stress is being given to institutional aspects and usufructory rights of the local people. Silvicultural aspects which should help in regeneration of degraded forests are neglected. Micro plans should concentrate on technical aspects and various technically sound models should be developed to give a boost to JFM.

· 1st June, 1990 guidelines have very clearly spelt that JFM is to be taken up only in degraded forests. However the term degraded forests is not yet defined. A number of NGOs have been insisting that gradually high forests should be brought under JFM. Communities who have assisted in maintaining high forests in good condition should not be deprived of the benefits, which are available to communities who degraded forests near their villages. Since at present, it is not possible to hand over entire forests to local people, a different criteria should be developed for the forests which are to be brought under JFM.

· In north-eastern states most of the forests are under control of local people, and degradation of forests and deforestation is highest in that region. The tree permit system has been grossly misused by not following any scientific principle and has contributed to over exploitation. Hence mere handing over control of forests to local communities is not a sufficient condition for development of forest resources. It is high time to introduce a reverse form of JFM in north-eastern states to prevent deforestation and degradation of forests.

· 1st June, 1990 guidelines envisage that grazing should not be permitted in JFM areas, it merely results in transfer of biotic pressure from JFM areas to adjacent forests and its consequent degradation. Since it is not possible to drastically reduce number of cattle dependent on forests, only practical solution is to develop a system of rotational and controlled grazing in all forest areas including JFM areas.

· There is acute pressure on land and Forest (Conservation) Act, 1980 has made it difficult to divert forest land for non-forestry purposes. Some of the State Governments have started treating JFM as a convenient tool to bypass Forest (Conservation) Act, 1980 and for distributing doles to people for short term political advantage. It is a dangerous trend and suitable steps should be taken to prevent it in future.

· Forest departments have to adjust to these changes and in future its role should be more in developing technical expertise, forestry research and extension activities. Direct management of JFM developed forest should be left to local people and private sector, with adequate technical support from forest department.

JFM is not allowed in Protected Areas (PAs) (National Parks and Wildlife Sanctuaries). However in PAs also cooperation of local people is essential. In PAs concept of eco-development has been introduced. The basic objective of eco-development is to minimise effect of PAs on local people and vice-versa. Under eco-development a number of development activities for local people are undertaken which are compatible to protection and conservation of wild flora and fauna. Such activities include raising of fuelwood and fodder outside PAs, vaccination of local cattle to prevent spreading of diseases among wild animals, training local people as guides and animal trackers, providing drinking water supply outside PAs for consumption of cattle and animals both etc.. Eco-development activities helped significantly in curbing friction among local people and protection staff of PAs.

Eco-development has contributed significantly towards easing hardships for local people and increased protection of wild flora and fauna. Active cooperation of local people on long term basis can be obtained only when stakes for local people are developed along with development of PAs. It may take the form of employment generation through development of eco-tourism, linking local economy with concerned PA and providing alternative to dependence on the protected areas.