Part 6 - Issues and recommendations for specific agro-ecological farming systems
Agro-ecological system: swidden (slash-and-burn) in forested uplands
Agro-ecological system: rainfed small farms
Agro-ecological system: fisheries
Agro-ecological system: plantations
Equitable and secure rights for those actually working the land are essential for improving natural resource management.
Dr. Solon Barraclough, Senior Consultant at the United Nations
Research Institute for Social Development (UNRISD),
Geneva, Switzerland
Issues |
Proposed strategies |
Forest degradation and denudation through timber logging, land loss, too much slash and burn, and population pressure |
Rehabilitate degraded ecosystems through reforestation of denuded watersheds |
Clearly Identify commercial forest areas | |
Impose selective logging in areas where agricultural lands are affected | |
Ban logging in ecologically-fragile areas and productive farmlands | |
Provide timber companies with practical, educational programmes on reforestation and oblige them to devise reforestation projects for the areas they harvest | |
Impose strict government control over timber exports | |
Find viable alternatives for shifting cultivators forced out of their traditional mode of livelihood, especially for women who were formerly agricultural producers in their own right | |
Train and involve both women and men in soil conservation and other resource-enhancing technology and practices | |
Promote communitty-based forest management which ensures that the community owns the trees; support diverse varieties and species of trees in nurseries and community forests and encourage the establishment of rules about forest maintenance, use and harvest(e.g., assignment of tasks) | |
Undertake rehabilitation programmes in farmlands affected by deforestation and provide cash compensation for income loss as an incentive to participate in such activities | |
Conflicts and differences in resource use by men and women (e.g., trees for alley crops or for fuelwood etc.) |
Promote soil erosion control technology, such as, alley cropping and terracing, using food-forage crops and multi-purpose tree species |
Tap women's indigenous knowledge in preserving big-diversity and traditional rice varieties | |
Soil erosion, loss of topsoil, poor fertility, and acid soils |
Community-based forest management |
Replenish soil nutrients through planting leguminous crops in rotation with other cash crops | |
Introduce alley cropping, using multi-purpose trees | |
Loss of big-diversity |
Promote the principle that big-diversity is a national heritage to be protected for future generations |
Ratify and implement the FAO Protocol on Plant Genetics Resources | |
Initiate national campaigns to promote the greater use of local herbs and vegetables | |
Conduct an environmental audit of big-diversity | |
Participate in international efforts to co-operate on preserving bio-diversity | |
Assist in the development of community seed banks for preserving big-diversity | |
Inappropriate production intervention, such as the replication of lowland mistakes (high use of pesticides and fertilisers) in the uplands, including the bias for working with male farmers almost exclusively. Terracing for rice production-seldom profitable for farmers-is another illustration of inappropriate intervention (e.g., when FAO terminated one rice terracing project, the farmers abandoned the project. No other projects, or alternative crops, were even considered) |
Learn from previous mistakes and develop workable programmes and projects for the uplands |
Introducing unsuitable crops into the uplands that endanger people's food security and family income |
Promote only the production of crops that grow well in the uplands |
Provide seeds, crop selection information and credit to upland farmers | |
Provide facilities for processing fruit for domestic and foreign markets | |
Banning of slash and burn cultivation without the provision of alternative livelihood systems, thereby resulting in male migration in search of jobs. This leaves the women and children without adequate resources and entirely dependent on irregular and insufficient remittances sent home by family members |
Develop livelihood systems that give priority to household food security and safeguard the community's traditional resource base |
Inadequate consideration of hidden costs to the community during resettlement processes-e.g., the loss of forest products, the loss of resource zones and the loss of indigenous knowledge especially in forced migrations of forest dwellers to unfamiliar lowlands |
Provide direct and just compensation, including monetary compensation, as starting capital for a new life in resettlement sites |
Ensure that resettlements are in environmentally-viable zones, where livelihood systems based on indigenous knowledge can be sustained | |
Review and evaluate resettlement programmes to make sure they are fair to both sexes, while maintaining a healthy environment and a sustainable population | |
Discrimination against women in the distribution of land and land rights caused by authorities recognising only men as heads of households |
Where private titles or stewardship contracts are being given out to households, ensure that the title or contract is in the name of female and male spouses, or if given out to individual farmers, to both female and male farmers |
Increases in women's workload in resettlement because of the loss of their traditional resource zone; insecurity of control over new resource zones; questions about ownership of trees and other resources; their responsibility for finding new sources of food; management of household adjustments; and also finding new income generating activities |
Provide gender-sensitive compensation and assistance to women as household resource managers in all resettlement projects |
Policy makers' lack of understanding of family's needs-e.g., by giving priority to market-oriented cash-cropping over household food security |
Promote food processing through labour-saving technologies and the raising of small farm animals |
Exclusion and marginalisation of uplands population, including minority peoples and hill tribes |
Ensure the legal status of minority peoples and hill tribes as citizens of the country, with full constitutional rights, even if they are migratory by tradition |
Provide educational and health services to both sexes of minority peoples and hill tribes that are culturally appropriate and gender-sensitive | |
Intrusion of tourism and commercial exploitation of tribal cultures |
Safeguard traditions and indigenous knowledge for the younger generations so long as they are environmentally valuable and economically viable |
Sexual exploitation of tribal women in the uplands |
Provide alternative means of income generation for women in the uplands and provide public education on AIDS, HIV infection and sexually-transmitted diseases |
Problems arising from poppy cultivation: the narcotics trade drug addition and over dependence on poppy |
Introduce cash crops to replace poppy |
Provide public education on the long-term negative affects of drug addiction | |
Low levels of nutrition in the uplands, high or chronic malnutrition, lower productivity, and increased morbidity and mortality |
Develop a nutritional policy and food security programme for the uplands population, with emphasis on the nutritional needs of women and children, especially infants and pregnant and lactating mothers |
High incidence of goitre among uplands population caused by iodine deficiency |
Provide iodised salt to the uplands population |
Blindness among children in the uplands through Vitamin A deficiency |
Provide Vitamin A to children in the uplands |
Lack of health services in the uplands, due to the reluctance of health workers to travel the long distances separating upland communities from urban centres |
Provide basic health care education to the rural community. especially to women who are usually the care givers of the family |
Develop mobile health care (e.g., through a "flying doctor" service, radio transmissions, mobile clinic, etc.) |
Issues |
Proposed strategies |
Promotion of cash crops, thereby threatening household food security, reducing livelihood prospects, and stimulating more migration |
Promote technology which enhances productivity Involve both women and men farmers in all stages of |
Promote mixed cropping and diversified cropping with greater concentration on nutritionally-rich varieties | |
Indigenous plants and traditional food crops should receive increased attention in research and extension | |
Generate off-farm employment opportunities, particularly during the dry season, with greater attention to small-scale, irrigated gardening | |
Soil erosion |
Agro-forestry should play an important role in soil and water conservation, but also in income generation and nutrition Introduce technology using crops for effective soil conservation |
Promote nitrogen-fixing and soil-holding plants | |
Provide funds for research on cropping systems in rainfed areas | |
Carry out participatory research involving both women and men farmers in rainfed farming, especially on crop selection, alley-cropping and terrace-cropping | |
Develop techniques for and training on topsoil conservation, especially to combat soil run-offs during the rainy season | |
Crowding out of small farm products (fruits, vegetables, eggs and poultry) by plantation-grown products, thereby reducing small farmers' income and provoking the loss of big-diversity |
Develop market niches for small farm products (e.g., free-range chicken and eggs, pesticide-free vegetables and exotic fruits) and assist small farmers in preserving big-diversity |
Replacement of household-level sustainable systems by technically "efficient" systems, such as the introduction of wrong new crop varieties which increase women's labour while reducing their cash flow-e.g., crops with long ripening periods or processing times |
Evaluate all technical interventions as to their social and gender impact and not just "efficiency" alone |
Degradation of irrigation structures |
Rehabilitate irrigation structures |
Promote small-scale irrigation systems | |
Encourage farmers to build their own water reserves for farming-fishing systems | |
Cooperate with NGOs in maintaining community-based irrigation management systems | |
Monocultures |
Promote crop diversification to save scarce water, prioritising crops of high value that require little water |
Introduce integrated farming systems, including fish farming, animals and crops | |
Shift from buffalo to tractor, leading to a loss of animal manure to fertilise crops, has a dual impact: males may be released to migrate to other work but this places a heavier burden on the women left behind |
Study the impact on women of new technology, over and above considerations of efficiency alone |
Excessive use of inorganic fertilisers and pesticides on rice and sugarcane, among others, causing |
Promote the use of organic fertilisers and pesticides and reduce the use of inorganic products |
contamination of irrigation water. This contaminated water then becomes a health hazard to families using water from the irrigation canals, leading to high rates of mortality and morbidity |
Promote non-chemically-produced farm technology and develop extension services for marketing non chemical farm products |
Issues |
Proposed strategies |
Disappearance of fish in paddy fields due to high pesticide use |
Strictly enforce proper pesticide use |
Promote the use of organic pesticides | |
Diminishing marine and fresh water resources' caused by marine pollution and over-fshing, |
Develop and enforce strict control over marine waste including waste fuel from ships, oil spills and chemical toxins |
Safeguard littoral food resources collected by women | |
Depletion of fish stocks through over-fishing |
Promote alternatives to trawler fishing |
Regulate fishing through seasonal laws that take into account the breeding cycles of different species of marine life | |
Promote fish fanning as an alternative to heavy fishing | |
Policy of exporting quality sea and fresh water food when this in turn increases the local prices of fish and prawns alternatives |
Meet local needs first before exports |
Resettlement of fishing communities to inland areas Ensure that resettlement is located in an with no access to rivers or the sea, leading to a loss environmentally-viable zone, where livelihood of traditional livelihood with no provision for viable systems based on indigenous knowledge can be sustained |
Issues |
Proposed strategies |
Increased exposure of women to chemical hazards, due to increasing numbers of women sprayers |
Provide mandatory, regular medical examination for plantation workers involved in pesticide spraying, with special attention given to the gynecological health of women sprayers |
Strictly enforce proper pesticide use | |
Low wages and unfavourable working conditions |
Review labour laws |
Monitor compliance with labour laws that benefit workers | |
Promote fair wages and conditions of employment | |
Provide quality facilities for women workers, especially child care facilities, such as mobile creches |
Issues |
Proposed strategies |
Biased top-down planning and management of water resources, including diverting irrigation works. This has a negative impact on the of the poor and reduces women's access to water for their own needs. |
Upgrade support for small irrigation systems, such as water to large-scale water users' associations, that are sustainable, manageable and of positive value to local livelihood livelihood systems |
Invest in irrigation systems for women's integrated farming | |
Encourage women's involvement in the design, construction, and operation and maintenance of irrigation systems | |
Technical interventions that are environmentally unsustainable, gender-biased, expensive and detrimental to community well-being |
Promote the development, dissemination, transfer and use of technology that is consistent with environmental sustainability and gender equality. Such technology should also fulfill basic needs and be financially affordable |
Lack of research on crop choices and varieties and on labour-saving farming technologies |
Conduct more research on crop varieties; develop labour-saving farming technologies, such as technology for food processing operations |
Agri-businesses policies that favour monocultures, cash crops and exports, thereby threatening household food security and often leading to malnutrition, morbidity and mortality |
Develop a policy-making framework for agricultural departments and agencies that is gender-responsive and pro-smallholder |
Promote a balance between food production and income generation, including cash crops, but ensure and enhance household food security and ability to meet basic needs-e.g., water, land, health care, education, and old age security | |
Promote preparation of agricultural plans that begin with the village, and involve both women and men | |
Involve communities in selling priorities according to their needs and available resources | |
Require extension workers to discuss with women and men farmers existing and prospective technology | |
Draw in NGOs to facilitate the planning process | |
Ensure that agri-businesses do not displace women's labour, thus encouraging rural migration, or worsen women's already subordinate position by making them economically dependent on male income | |
Water pollution through sedimentation and siltation resulting from deforestation and soil erosion. This leads to health hazards and the destruction of irrigation structures, thereby reducing food production and supply and resulting in increased malnutrition, morbidity or mortality, especially among women and children |
Find ways to halt deforestation and soil erosion and properly manage the watershed |
Develop a safe, potable water programme for all rural communities | |
Confusion between national food security and household food security, leading to the export of food crops at the expense of household food security |
Give priority to household food security as the basis of national food policies and meet domestic food requirements first before exporting, with particular attention to the equal distribution of essential food resources to different family members, old and young, male and female |
Ensure that the urban population's market demand does not cause rural starvation, by equitable distribution of food supplies lo the rural population | |
Review existing agricultural policies and re-assess traditional fanning systems as to their effects on gender equity, environmental sustainability and the basic needs of the poor | |
Specialisation in a limited number of crops(especially imported crops) for cities' food demands through contract farming for agri-business, leading to the disappearance of traditional crop varieties |
Build a database on farmers' indigenous knowledge of agricultural production, including seed and crop varieties, planting, tending and harvesting |
Develop a national resources conservation policy, applying FAO's Protocol on Plant Genetic Resources | |
Initiate campaigns to conserve and consume local herbs and vegetables | |
Compile a national audit of native biological resources | |
Rural-urban migration, including female migration, leading to an ageing farming population |
Develop social and economic infrastructural services - education, health services, electricity, roads, transportation and communications-in the rural areas |
Turn agricultural areas into dynamic habitats through job creation, economic revitalisation, and the provision of recreational and cultural attractions for the young | |
Stop or slow the rural to urban migration by providing a legal framework and economic incentives for greater investments in smallholders' agricultural production, plus the provision of steady, non-agricultural income in small-scale industries and local services | |
Promote the processing of surplus agricultural products by small farmers grouped in co-operatives and self-help units, owned and managed by themselves | |
Promote small-scale, value-adding enterprises that provide employment to rural women through adequate marketing | |
Encourage self-employment that may or may not be directly related to agricultural production-handicrafts, sale of goods and services-as important strategies for family survival | |
Design agricultural price policies with incentives for bigger proportions of migrant remittances to be invested in technological improvements in the rural sector | |
Provide alternatives to urbanism by developing small and medium-sized urban centres, instead of large metropolitan agglomerations, and thus give rural areas much needed employment opportunities and social services | |
In regional planning and methods, harmonise population growth, densities and spatial distribution with the availability of resources for rural development | |
Review all decentralisation of industries to rural areas as this often has a backlash on agriculture, inflating the prices of farmland and food' and converting many farmers into industrial workers | |
Ensure that industries do not decentralise at the expense of agricultural production | |
Conversion of farming land to industrial and non-agricultural uses |
Review strategies for the decentralisation of industries to rural areas to ensure food security for small farmers and other rural inhabitants |
Multiple burdens for women: agricultural production, generation of cash income, housework, child care, care of the aged and handicapped, etc. |
Involve men in training usually designed for women--e.g., family planning, as well as time and money management training in home economics |
In family planning programmes, women's income and the enhancement of their self-esteem should be key considerations | |
Encourage the sharing of household chores between the male and female household members | |
Encourage males to respect women, including their work and child-bearing rights | |
Accepting only men as heads of house- holds, owners of land, and controllers of all resources |
Enforce gender-equitable rights of ownership and access to resources, including land titles, inheritance and resettlement compensation |
Bias for working with male farmers almost exclusively |
Insist that women's representation be commensurate with their participation in all programmes |
Bias against women in training, extension curricula and delivery of extension services |
Develop gender-sensitive training and curricula |
Support women's crop farming and other activities through technical advice, credit, and providing marketing links | |
Require extension workers to undergo gender-sensitization training | |
Establish information distribution systems that respond to the needs of women, particularly in methods of environmental management-monitoring rainfall patterns and quality of water; understanding soil structures and the carrying capacity of their lands; the effects of pollution on water, soil, fish and animals through industrial waste disposal; and the correct use of fertilisers, pesticides and farm machinery | |
Provide women with relevant information on pesticides and other chemicals and their health hazards to themselves and their families | |
Pay special attention to the fact that women generally have less contact with agricultural services and have lower levels of literacy | |
Persisting extension-service problems shortages of staff, funds, and technical support, lack of sensitivity or awareness of community situations, and few female extension workers |
Give priority in national planning to providing extension services to the rural sector |
Upgrade agriculture to science status In secondary schools' curricula to encourage academically-inclined students to take up agricultural studies | |
Promote community-based research, training, technology and extension services that are fair to both sexes, environmentally-friendly, and pro-smallholder | |
Credit policies that are unfair to women, women's limited access to agricultural inputs |
Make local banking more friendly to women |
Make it mandatory for banks to provide credit facilities to women on their own merit without needing husband's or father's signature | |
Develop gender-equitable technical and credit services | |
Donor support for women-friendly projects |
Ensure women's participation in all stages of all projects, from planning to implementation, aiming to achieve 50 percent women's participation in all projects |
No data by agro-ecologieal system, giving gender differentiated morbidity and mortality rates, and no data on the gender-differential impact of rural |
Develop a gender-differentiated database of relevant statistics and information |
Make environmental impact assessment concepts and techniques development programmes gender-sensitive and responsive to soeio-eeonomie costs and benefits in agricultural production and rural community life | |
Set up information exchange systems and co-operation on gender, environment and population issues in the region | |
Lack of credit and appropriate technology to small farmers |
Provide credit and training to small farmers |
Develop alternative community-based credit and food security systems | |
Extension workers' neglect of marketing prospects when deciding which crops or activities to push |
Provide training in the marketing of agricultural products to extension workers, and develop a marketing extension service, especially for the promotion of non-chemical farm products marketed at better prices for ecologically-friendly consumers |
Marketing, transport and price information problems, especially for women who market their own crops |
Develop a gender-responsive, user-friendly information-sharing system and effective infrastructure for transportation |
Introduce durable, high-market-value crops that can be easily | |
Structural adjustments reducing social |
Establish guidelines for community well-being, adopting existing services or loss of previous security nets standards as the minimum criteria below which social services and security nets should not be allowed to fall |
Health and social services as part of the government's political strategy, which can be unilaterally withdrawn when these strategies no longer serve political purposes |
Empower the community to provide self-help services and a code of government accountability to the rural population, usually the most powerless |
Provide follow-up services--health care, sanitation, water, education, housing standards and family planning services-to displaced rural communities, as well as rural-urban migrants living in squatter areas | |
Insufficient recognition of NGOs' potential |
Include NGOs in development policy-making bodies and at project and programme implementation levels |
Recognise NGOs' role officially by spelling out a policy to facilitate their participation in national planning | |
Child prostitution, especially of female children |
Enforce laws protecting children, especially laws against the selling of daughters |
Impose heavy penalties on prostitution racketeers, pimps, brothel keepers, customers and the parents of child prostitutes, not on the girl child herself | |
Promote education for girls, especially basic literacy and accounting skills, as this relates to better productivity and more informed fertility choices | |
Develop alternative job opportunities for young women that generate income and enhance their self-esteem | |
Address the under-valuation of women's work, by ensuring that their income is proportionate to their work time and effort | |
Alleviate rural poverty and provide alternative means of income for poor families | |
Provide information and child-friendly training to parents for both their girls and boys | |
Spread of AIDS, HIV infection and sexually-transmitted diseases |
Include information on AIDS, HIV infection and STDs in the training of extension workers |
Develop a health-centred family planning approach and promote the use of condoms | |
Provide public education on AIDS, HIV infection and STDs | |
Include rural communities in national strategies for the prevention and control of AIDS, HIV infection and STDs |
1 The mortality rates are given per 1,000 at risk: neonatal deaths per 1,000 live births, post-neonatal deaths per 1,000 surviving to the age of one month, and children's deaths per 1,000 surviving to the age of one year, but not surviving till the age of five.
2 "Traditional rural" = rural, uneducated, agricultural couple, with the wife engaged in family work; "metropolitan elite" = urban couple with seven-plus years of education, where the wife is employed outside the home and the husband is in a professional or clerical occupation.
3 Such development processes, noted Hamilton (1992:414):
"...generally leave a large part of the rural population pauperised and starving for long periods, perhaps several decades. They are the casualties of social and economic transition; capitalist growth generally entails the impoverishment for long periods of large sections of the population."
"Those countries which have a high dependence on exports of commodities are likely to have difficulty with the volatility that this dependence imparts to their economies. Sustained growth is based on sustained investment and the latter requires a degree of stability and certainty about the future. It is not possible to predict changes in prices of primary commodities on world markets" (Hamilton, 1992:407-8).
4 A delegate to the 26th FAO Conference explained the necessity of doing so in the following terms:
...(his country) places emphasis on gender equity and the need for integrating women into the development process in all of (their) interventions in UN institutions, not because this is a standard paragraph; not because it is simply an ethical argument, though that point could be made; not because it is a matter of social justice, though that indeed is perfectly valid; and not because of women's particular role in social development, though that is very important. The reason for our emphasis, he continued, is simply that we believe very sincerely that pragmatic development effectiveness and efficiency demand that half the population not be excluded from the decision-making process and from activities which directly affect them. This applies increasingly, he added, to the allocation of financial resources for development which, of course, have a direct impact on economic and socially-sustainable development (quoted from Zoran Roca's Introductory Statement to the Regional Workshop on Women, Population and Sustainable Agricultural Development, 3-6 December, 1991, Kariba, Zimbabwe).
5 Such cultural attitudes are expressed, for example, in the following Thai proverb:
Men are the front legs of the elephant
Women are the hind legs of the elephant
This is understood to mean that traditionally the man "appears" as the decision-maker: he goes first and chooses the course. The hind legs are, however, the large burden bearers. They actually do the tremendous job of supporting the elephant's weight. If the hind legs were to sit down, it would not matter where the front legs wanted to go: they would not be able to go anywhere until the hind legs decided to carry them. If the hind legs were to be injured, the whole elephant would be incapacitated. Nevertheless, though the hind legs may carry the elephant's weight and even refuse to move, they are not in a position to lead the front legs or set the direction for the elephant.
But men and women are not mere legs. Society is not an organic body and men and women are not parts of this organic body. Our understanding of society should not be based on a totally false analogy which reduces the complementarily of men and women to an organic division of body parts. Even if such proverbs had seemed applicable in earlier historical eras, the hierarchical attitudes they express are increasingly obsolete and irrelevant.
6 As Gita Sen (1992:1 1) has pointed out:
"For example, a national energy policy that does not take adequate account of the needs of the poor for fuel is unlikely to be sustainable."
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