4. Woodfuel supply management and resource requirements

4.1 Firewood

4.1.1 Type of wood used

4.1.2 Purchase versus collection

4.1.3 Collection patterns

4.2 Charcoal

4.3 Household woodfuel supply and roundwood requirements

4.4 Woodfuel and household energy supply 1994

4. Woodfuel supply management and resource requirements

This section of the report attempts to express the 1994 current consumption levels in terms of wood resource requirements and analyse important supply management issues per training particularly to firewood (collection, collection patterns. purchase, type of wood used, etc).

4.1 Firewood

4.1.1 Type of wood used

The type of firewood consumed has far reaching implications on the management and sustainability of the forest resource base necessary to meet consumption needs. Four major wood category types were identified with a decreasing negative impact on the wood resource degradation. These categories are:

(i) Stem wood which presents the highest risk to the degradation of the resource base requiring the cutting down of the whole tree - except in high rainfall areas where there is a abundancy of dead wood (trees).

(ii) Tree branches which does not necessarily require complete tree cutting and if properly practiced and administered presents much lower risks to resource base degradation.

(iii) Small branches or twigs with little or no risk to resource base.

(vi) Bushes which also present little risk to woody resources.

Table 4.1

Household Firewood Consumption by wood type, 1994

(All in M³)

Household	Stem wood	Tree branches	Small branches	Bushes branches	Total	%
Urban	258 864	411 916	132792	39709	843281	14%
Rural	239 579	2853813	1010730	254527	5058649	86 %
N. Sudan	1198443	3265729	1143522	294236	5901930	100
%	20%	56%	19%	5 %	100

Source: Wood Consumption survey, 1994

(a) In aggregate the firewood consumed in the majority of the areas is of the tree branches type (56%). This generally posses less risk for resource deterioration if administered properly. Stem wood which is the most determental to the resource base, except in areas where dead trees are abandoned (high rainfall areas), comprises about 20% of the firewood consumed The remaining 24% is made of small branches (twigs) and bushes with little effect on wood resource deterioration.

(b) Rural/urban disagregation of firewood consumed by type of wood shows a similar pattern. However clear tendency is apparent for urban households to have more of their firewood as stem wood type (33%) compared to rural ones (20%). This reflects the increased pressures on the wood resource with urbanization. These pressures are more accentuated by urban charcoal consumption which mostly requires stem wood and is associated with high conversion losses.

(c) At the state level analysis of the 1994 consumption wide variations are exhibited. Detailed data by state reveal the following:

(i) Out of the 1.198 million cubic meters of stem wood consumed in 1994, Southern Darfur (30%), Est Kordofan (16%), North Darfur (15%), Khartoum (9%) and Blue Nile are the highest consumers. Such distribution pattern tend to link consumption of firewood of stem type more with areas where the wood resource is abundant and areas where, due to scarcity, firewood became a highly commercialized commodity.

(ii) The tree-branches firewood type which formed the bulk of firewood consumption (56% or 3.267 million M³ in Northern Sudan shows a slightly different pattern. East Darfur (21%), Southern Darfur (19%), North Darfur (14%) and North Kordofan (8%) states show the highest consumption of tree branches. In contrast to stem wood type, all states exhibited consumption of this firewood type with Gezira (1 %) consuming the least and East Darfur the highest. Still the trend for increased percentage consumption characterized areas of wood resources abundancy or states where firewood is highly commercialized.

(iii) Firewood of the small branches type consumed in 1994 totalled, 0.114 million cubic metres distributed in all the states of Northern states. There is a clear tendency of higher percentage consumption for these states which generally exhibit low stem wood or tree branches consumption (Northern, River Nile, and North Kordofan). West Darfur ranked as the highest consumer of this type of firewood.

(iv) Similarly the case of firewood of the bushes type show the same trends of increased percentage consumption of states with low stem wood and tree branches (Northern, River Nile, Kassala, Khartoum, Sennar, White Nile, North Kordofan and East Darfur). Mostly these areas are in the desert and semi-desert zones. However exceptions are there (e.g. West Kordofan).

Table 4.2

Firewood Consumption by state and wood type, 1994

State	Stem Wood		Tree Branches		Small Branches		Bushes and Branches
	M3	%	M3	%	M3	%	M3	%
Northern	1501	0.1 %	52926	2 %	100648	9	3898	12 %
River Nile	757	0.06	79707	2	101853	9	27992	10
Red Sea	7955	1	81239	2	6957	1	1693	1
Kassala	35005	3	210095	6	63323	6	25911	9
Gedaref	31121	3	105440	3	30935	3	17746	6
Khartoum	105465	9	117011	4	29178	3	21290	7
Gezira	33638	3	30791	1	54608	5	12772	4
Sennar	10230	1	62519	2	86739	8	20930	7
White Nile	4418	0.37	141333	4	69556	6	31495	11
Blue Nile	8780	7	80672	2	68223	6	9251	3
North Kordofan	55431	5	256156	8	152722	12	4098	4
West Kordofan	190111	16	190111	6	21218	2	8334	1
South Kordofan	26214	2	124953	4	50019	4	14404	3
North Darfur	179525	15	451799	14	54174	5	45971	5
West Darfur	55333	5	646397	21	186410	15	5270	15
South Darfur	372774	30	631543	19	65929	6	293965	2
N. Sudan	1197358	100	3262690	100	1142491	100	294236	100
%	20%	-	56%	-	19%	-	5%	-

4.1.2 Purchase versus collection

(i) At the aggregate level (N. Sudan) only 28% of the firewood consumed is purchased. The remaining 72% is collected as a free good This has various economic, social and environmental implications The ratio of purchased versus collected is strongly associated with urbanization. While the percentage of the firewood collected is 14.6% for urban households, it is 82.2% for the rural case.

Table 4.2

Household firewood collection and purchase, 1994

Households	Purchased M3	Collected M3	Total
Urban	731644	125082	856726
Rural	899553	4145651	5045204
Totals N. Sudan	131197	4270733	5901930
%	28%	72%	100

Source: Wood products consumption survey, 1994.

(ii) In economic terms such sizable free collection can be viewed positively as household savings as long as the opportunity cost of labour needed for collection does not exceed market supply cost. For the forestry authorities and state it represents a loss of revenue. Using current royalty values alone this is equivalent to an annual revenue of Ls. 469.8 million. This value in fact falls short of the resource cost of planting the trees.

At the social front this can present lost valuable time for women and children who shoulder most of the collection.

Collected quantities are generally less damaging to the natural resource environment (branch wood) than those purchased.

(iii) Firewood collection and/or purchase is also associated with income levels. In both rural and urban areas collection tends to decrease as income rises. Percentage values for collected quantities decreased with income rise from 27.4% to 8.1% for urban households; and from 92.1 % to 65.1 % for rural households.

Table 4.3

Households Firewood collection and Purchase by Income level 1994

Income level	Urban			Rural
	Consumption M3	% collected	% purchased	Consumption M3	% collected	% purchased
Low	134819	27.4%	2386124	92.1%	7.9%
Medium	316142	17.2%	82.8	1735625	77.1	22.9
High	405765	8.1 %	91.90	923455	65.6	34.4
N. Sudan	856726	14.6%	85.4	5045204	82.2	17.8

Source: Wood products consumption survey, 1994.

(iv) Purchase versus collection when analysed by education level there is an apparent trend of decreased collected quantities as percent of consumption with education level. For rural households purchased quantities increased from 14.9% for illiterate to 50.80% for university graduate heads of households. On the other hand collected quantities for urban households dropped from 18% for illiterate to 2.5% for graduates. The case for urban households however showed some inconsistencies in the case for Khalwa and secondary level categories - who tend not to follow the general trend.

Table 4.4

Households firewood collection and purchase by education level of heads of households, 1994

Education Level	Urban			Rural
	Cons. M3	% collected	% purchased	Cons. M3	% collected	% purchased
Illiterate	2402989	18%	82%	2402989	85.1%	14.9%
Khalwa	189849	20.8	79.2	1580730	83.3	16.7
Preliminary	211746	9.5	90.5	679445	74.9	25.1
Intermediate	82337	8.1	91.9	189152	76.4	23.6
Secondary	61919	11.1	88.9	132845	66.2	33.8
University	26885	3.5	96.5	38036	49.2	50.8
Not stated	1601	0	100	22007	82.6	17.4
N. Sudan	856726	14.6	85.4	5045204	82.2	17.8

Source: Wood products consumption survey, 1994.

(v) Analysis of purchase versions collection by ecological zone reveals the pattern of increased collection as one moves from desert zones towards high rainfall ones. Quantities collected increased from 50.7 % in desert areas to 77.2 % in the low rainfall zones of the total household consumption for each zone.

Table 4.5

Purchase versus collection of firewood by ecological zones 1994

Ecological zone	Firewood consumption M3	Percentage collected	Percentage purchased
Desert.	189973.64	50.7 %	49.3%
Semi-desert	1381599.9	61.1	38.9
Low rainfall	4312501.2	77.2	22.8
High rainfall	17855.67	N.A.	N.A.
N. Sudan	5901930.3	-	-

Source: Wood consumption survey, 1994.

4.1.3 Collection patterns

The collection pattern itself in terms of family members collecting its frequency, time spent and the means of transport used has various implications and reflects a set of prevailing socio-economic and environmental conditions. The survey data showed the following results:

(i) In aggregate i.e. national overview - for both rural and urban households women seem to do most of the collection. Both men and children share a sizable portion of the burden.

Table 4.6

Firewood Collection Pattern by collecting family member and means of transport

Household	Collected by			Means of Transport
	Men	Women	Children	Manual	Animal	Car	Other
Urban	21.8	45.5	31.2	65.1	15.0	4.0	4.0
Rural	22.9	71.8	25	77.5	27.2	0.6	0.8
N. Sudan	22.8 %	69.5	25.5	76.4	26.2	0.9	1.1

Source Wood Consumption Survey, 1994.

However, when desegregated by state significant variations are exhibited as for as the role of household family members is concerned in firewood collection. There are instances where collection is more a man's job-than a woman’s as the national aggregate tend to show. An example of such situations is shown by Kassala and Red Sea states where the percentage for women firewood collections 16.1 % and 36.1 % for the two states respectively. In contrast in all Western states firewood collection almost a woman's job. These contrasts can be explained by the different tribal culture in eastern and western Sudan. There are cases where children seem to shoulder most of the burden of firewood collection. Examples of such situations include Sennar State (60%) and Gedaref (50.3 %). Both states however relatively rich in resources and collection consumes less (of their time, hence having little) interference with their schooling and education.

(ii) The means of transport used for collection seems to indicate the nearness collecting area. The results with a 76.4% of manual (i.e. on foot) transport indicate a collecting zone within walking distance. The results also show the increasing tendency of using animal transport for collection (26.2%) which is expected to increase with present accelerated wood resource degradation. Car or mechanical transport is very limited and more used by urban households. it is interesting to note that animal transport is particularly high in states Kassala (42.7%), Red Sea (34.9%) where collection is shouldered mainly by the male members of the family. This may also be associated with the type of firewood collected i.e. stem wood versus branches.

(iii) Both collection time and frequency reflect the status of the wood resource base within collection zones. The national aggregate reveals that firewood collection is only a morning job. None of the respondents send all day in collection. There are however wide variations between and within states depending on the conditions of the wood resource base. For example 51.9% of rural household in Gezira state spend no up to noon for their firewood collection.

Table 4.7

Firewood collection by Time spend and frequency

Household	Collection Time			Frequency of Collection
	Morning	Noon	All day	Daily	2-3 days	4-5 days	Once/week
Urban	62.6%	29.9%	0	17.1	44.5	12.1	26.2
Rural	63.3%	35.9%	0	18.8	59.4	8.7	13.2
N. Sudan	63.3	35.4	0	18.6	58.1	9.0	14.3

Source: Wood Consumption Survey 1994.

As far as the frequency for collections is concerned the majority of households collect firewood once every 2 to 3 days (58.1%). 18.6% of the households have daily collections frequency and 14.3% of the households with once - a week collection frequency. This aggregate picture tend to mask trends that are associated with urbanization and relative resource scarcity. Although the percentage of households daily collecting firewood in urban and rural areas are similar (only in percentage terms), the collections task in urban areas is more of a formidable task. The results also show the increased percentage of urban households that collect firewood on a weekly basis (26.2%) compared to rural households (13.2%). This percentage in relatively arid states where wood is scarce increased to as high as 36.2% (Kassala, Red Sea and River Nile States). There seems to be an association between resource scarcity and collection frequency. As resources become depleted the collection frequency moves towards once a week pattern. Similarly for these areas time for collection increased beyond the predominant morning period and means of transport gradually shifts to animal type. There greatly increases the economic and social of firewood collection and facilitate as income rises to shift to a purchasing mode for firewood supply.

4.2 Charcoal

Unlike firewood is highly commercialized and more exacting in terms of wood type raw material used for its production. In general charcoal is always purchased and that both stem and relatively large branches are used for its production. The major supply aspects that need to be covered relate to wood requirements for its production the present conversion technologies, and its production under the economics and marketing. The conversion technologies is beyond the scope of this study. Only the amount of losses in resource terms will be estimated using the earth kiln conversion technology currently practiced. Production economics and marketing is a subject of a specific study as part of the wood products consumption survey programme. In this part of the report only round wood requirements will be assessed.

Roundwood requirements for the provision of annual charcoal consumption, using the 1994 survey data, is estimated to be 6.07 million cubic meters roundwood. This is based on present earth kiln high efficiency of 30% and a wood density value of 0.72 ton/m³ on air-dry basis.

Of the 6.07 million cubic meters, 70% (3.64 million M³ is lost during the carbonization process. These conversion losses are equivalent to 61.2% of the total firewood consumption for N. Sudan. The conversion factors used (may seem rather high) are based on extensive field studies in commercial charcoal production zones in eastern and central Sudan (FAO/ERI 1983, ERI/USAID, 1982).

Table 4.7

Roundwood requirements for charcoal production to meet 1994 household charcoal consumption on N. Sudan

All in M³

Household	Low income	Medium income	High income	Total	%
Urban	252 885	1055404	2311342	3619601	59.6
rural	267454	939832	1243320	2450606	40.4
Total	520309	1995236	3554662	6070207	100
%	8.6%	32.9%	58.6%	100	-

Source: Wood Products Consumption Survey, 1994.

4.3 Household woodfuel supply and roundwood requirements

The analysis of round wood needs for all woodfuel types (firewood, charcoal, dukhan) is presented in table 4.

(a) The current (1994) household woodfuel consumption requires the production of 12.22 million cubic meters of solid wood. This quantity is distributed almost equally between firewood (48.3%) and charcoal (49.7%). Dukhan wood requirements represents only 2% of the total wood requirement in Northern Sudan.

Table 4.8

Roundwood requirements for 1994 household woodfuel consumption

(Cubic Meters Solid)

Household	Firewood M3	Charcoal M3	Dukhan wood M3	Total	%
Urban	856726	3619601	119788	4596115	37.6
Rural	5045204	2450606	126661	7622471	62.4
Total	5901930	6070207	246449	12218586	100
%	48.3%	49.7	2	100	-

Source: Wood products consumption survey, 1994.

(b) By ecological zone round wood requirements is highest for low rainfall areas (56.1%) followed by semi-desert (39.6%), desert (2.8%) and high rainfall areas (0.5%) as the least. This clearly reflects the conflict of geographical distribution of population and wood natural resources in N. Sudan.

Table 4.9

Roundwood requirements for household woodfuel by ecological zone

Ecological zone	Firewood	Charcoal	Total	%
Desert	247881	84983	332864	2.8
Semi-desert	1316130	3423597	4739727	39.6
Low Rainfall	4255292	2464504	6719796	56.1
High Rainfall	82627	97123	179750	1.5
N. Sudan	5901930	6070207	11972137	100

Source: wood consumption survey, 1994

Note: Table above does not include Dukhan wood which represents only 2 % of total wood requirements for N. Sudan.

(c) At the state level household woodfuel round-wood requirements shows wide variation between states. This variation is consistent with prevailing consumption patterns and population distribution. The detailed state by state analysis is presented table 4.10. Khartoum, Gezira and S. Darfur show the highest round-wood requirements values. While Northern, river Nile, Red Sea and South Kordofan are among the lowest in terms of roundwood requirements for woodfuel. It should be noted that while Khartoum, Gezira, Northern, River Nile and Red Sea are characterized by poor wood resource base, S. Darfur and South Kordofan are rich in forestry resources. Once the data of the current national inventory becomes available it is possible to identify supply demand gaps and opportunities for inter-state trade on woodfuel products.

Table 4.10

Roundwood Requirements for household woodfuel by state

State	Firewood	Charcoal	Dukhan	Total	%
Northern	189973	63672	7332	260977	2.14
River Nile	210310	121050	6824	338184	2.77
Red Sea	97843	22334	1275	322452	2.64
Kassala	334333	256117	6277	596727	4.88
Gedaref	185242	214901	7071	407214	3.33
Khartoum	272943	1874391	72300	2219634	18.17
Gezira	131809	1363546	26268	1521623	12.45
Sennar	180743	510905	12473	704121	5.76
White Nile	246827	33764	25135	609603	4.99
Blue Nile	246025	134592	12943	393560	3.22
N. Kordofan	476214	346634	23765	846613	6.93
w. Kordofan	405700	123650	13671	543021	4.44
S. Kordofan	209547	108119	3962	321628	2.63
N. Darfur	702642	104118	3491	810251	6.63
W. Darfur	936264	77132	2963	1016359	8.32
S. Darfur	1075516	210406	20698	1306620	10.69
	5901931	6070208	246448	12218587	100

4.4 Woodfuel and household energy supply 1994

The household sector of Northern Sudan consumed 3.6 million T.O.E of final energy in 1994. Of this amount biomass (woody and non-woody) provided 89.3%. the remaining 10.7% is supplied by modern fuels (petroleum, LPG and electricity).

Of the biomass fuels, firewood (50.7%)_ contributed the most (1.8 million T.O.E), followed by charcoal (26.2%) with a share of 0.94 million TOE. Agricultural and wood residues (12.3%) and dukhan wood (2.%) contributed 0.45 million and 0.11 million TOE respectively.

Table 4.11

Household final energy supply by fuel for 1994 in TOE

All in TOE

Household	Firewood	Charcoal	Agricultural & wood (Sudan) residues	Dukhan wood	Petroleum	LPG	Electricity	Total	%
Urban	265242	562920	32743	51509	33638	51038	36416	1033506	28.7
Rural	1561995	381110	418212	54464	134552	12760	9139	2572232	71.3
Total	1827237	944030	450955	105973	168190	63798	45555	3605738	100
%	50.7%	26.2%	12.5	2.9	4.7	1.8	1.3	100	-

Source:	(1) Wood products consumption survey, 1994 `or Biomass.
	(2) NEA for Modern Fuels, 1994.

Note: Values for conversion used in 0.43, 0.72 and 0.32 TOE per ton of firewood, charcoal and residue respectively when analysed in rural and urban context the following observations can be made.

(a) There is a difference in the fuel mix (biomass versus modern fuels) with urbanization. Rural household energy is supplied almost solely by biomass fuels which meet 97.8% of the household energy needs. For the urban sub-sector biomass provided for 80.3% of the energy needs. Modern fuels provided 2.2% and 19.7% of the sector needs for rural and urban sub-sectors respectively.

(b) The share of the different biomass fuel types themselves tend to vary with urbanization. Ranking (in terms of percentage contribution to supply final energy) for the rural subsector firewood (68.4%) and agricultural residues (16.7%) each contribute more than charcoal (15.5%). In the urban subsector however charcoal have the highest contribution (47.9%) followed by firewood (23.4%) and the combined modern fuels (19.7%).

(c) In absolute terms, more energy is consumed in the rural subsector. The latter consumed in 1994 71.3% of the final energy compared to 28.7% due by the urban subsector. This is more due to be overwhelming. 1 effect of the population.