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Two regional papers on "Rangelands in the Arab Region: Their Condition and Means for Maintenance and Development" and "A Systems Perspective for Sustainable Dryland Development in the Near East Region" were presented by Dr. M. A. Shourbagi, Director of Plant Studies, ACSAD and Dr. N. E. Gaddes, Regional Range Management and Fodder Production Officer FAO/RNEA, respectively. The first paper summarized factors that caused desertification of rangelands, the most important of which being excessive utilization and irrational use of land resources. Realizing the seriousness of the situation and the adverse efforts of rangeland degradation, countries of the Region directed more effects towards rangelands development, desertification control and environmental conservation However, decertified areas were increasing, as causative factors remained unchecked. Productivity of range and crop lands declined with serious consequences on agricultural output, soil and water resources, and on Arab Food Security Programme. The paper proposed a strategy for combating desertification of rangelands based on increasing their primary production, maintaining optimum rangelivestock population and development of other feed resources. It emphasized the need to adopt comprehensive and flexible range conservation and desertification control activities within the context of an overall environmental conservation and management programme. The paper attached great importance to the development and implementation of effective extension-education programmes and strengthening national institutions.

The second paper indicated that the dryland development approach was intended to guide and stimulate the adoption of sustainable agricultural development in the drylands of the Near East, with the aim of encouraging forms of land use and resources utilization that were both sustainable and capable of alleviating poverty and arresting the process of land degradation. It stressed on the need to meet certain conditions as pre-requisite for orderly dryland development. These included political will, marketing and infra-structure, settlement of land tenure and grazing rights; and community participation in decision making. Population growth was expected to increase pressure on drylands to produce more agricultural output to meet a rising demand, hence the pressing need for promoting appropriate technologies to enhance dryland productivity without causing deterioration to land resources.

B) Sub-regional papers

The Workshop reviewed three sub-regional papers on the maintenance and development of rangelands in North Africa, the Middle East and the Horn of Africa.

The first paper reviewed the causes of disruption of ecosystems and the resulting imbalance in resource utilization patterns. These were closely linked to the socio-economic changes experienced in Magreb Countries and to production means and technologies. Rangeland improvement was attempted through various interventions as seeding, fertilization, range protection, grazing management and creation of forage reserves. Attempts were also made and programmes initiated to promote afforestation, rangeland rehabilitation, and soil and water conservation. Several trials and studies on conservation and development have been completed in North Africa and the Arab Region. Future prospects for natural resources development and for combating desertification require adoption of holistic approach and of practices that can ensure achievement of goals at both national and Arab Region levels. The paper emphasized the need to give more attention to range utilization practices. and recognizing community rights.

The second paper reviewed the situation in the Middle East Countries. Increased human and livestock population and the lack of improved range productivity accentuated competition for land and resulted in a decline in available grazing. Rising demand for animal products led to excessive utilization of the grazing resources, and consequently triggered degeneration and desertification. This critical situation in the countries of the Region calls for sound socio-economic planning that would take into consideration all projections for population, economic growth and in per capita income. Consideration should be given to prevailing competition for land used for agriculture. grazing and forestry and water resources. The paper emphasized that pastoral activities are traditional with very little investment in flocks arid practically no investment in grazing resources. Hence. reviving hema and adoption of other systems that would require investment should be preceded by sufficient efforts of extension-education and close consultation with bedouins.

The third paper drew attention to land degradation due to the cultivation of marginal lands and misuse of land resources, leading to accelerated desertification. This has been reflected as economic loss, disruption of social structure and threatening of biological diversity in affected areas. Environmental factors, human activities, political decisions and ill-conceived development programmes have resulted in disturbing the balance between available resources and traditional land uses. They also weakened traditional systems of use and control of community resources. Many of the programmes and interventions aiming at the sound management and improvement of grazing resources have failed or have limited impact as they were introduced without sufficient understanding of the needs and aspirations of pastoral groups, and irrespective of their concurrence with plans. The paper emphasized the need to formulate an acceptable and practical land tenure policy that would take into consideration traditional grazing rights and recent environmental and socio-economic changes and would give pastoral groups and rural communities some title to the land. The paper concluded that although rangelands will continue to be an important resource, purely pastoral populations will continue to decline due to migration induced by droughts, desertification, security reasons and due to the tendency of young generations of pastoral origin to look for jobs outside their traditional areas.

C) Country papers

The Jordanian paper reviewed forms of rangeland misuse, resulting in deterioration of the vegetation cover and triggering soil erosion leading to the desertification of large stretches of land. The paper also reviewed the factors of rangeland degradation, including ploughing to re-institute right of land or for growing a barley crop, early grazing, collection of firewood and mining activities. Constraints to rangeland development included the lack of range legislation enforcement the erroneous understanding that communal grazing is an un-owned resource, and shortage of funds. Government efforts were geared to reforestation, rangelands conservation and management, surface water resources development and establishment of nature reserves. In conclusion, the paper called for the adoption of an integrated approach to rangeland development.

In United Arab Emirates, increasing attention, has been given to irrigated fodder production to supply livestock needs. The use of brackish water in a hot and arid environment accelerated land salinization. Areas affected by salinity were devoted to grow salt-tolerant forages such as Rhodes grass.

The representative of Tunisia summarized his country's achievements in the area of rangeland development. including the introduction of legislation authorizing the Forestry Administration to conserve, improve and manage grazing land. Some areas were planted to fodder shrubs for increasing forage production and creating grazing reserves.

The representative of the Sudan reviewed the major factors behind rangeland degradation. These included fire, cultivation of marginal lands, overgrazing, drought and desertification. Reference was made to feed deficit if livestock depend only on rangelands - a situation corrected by the utilization of other sources of feed. The paper drew attention to the constraint imposed by policies that do not allow government agencies to be involved in fields of production that should be handled by the private sector. An interesting and relevant project in the country is "Integrated Resource Management for Desertification Control" which has the objective of developing a selfsustained locally-organized natural resource management system.

The Syrian representative gave an account of the status of the steppes and the organization of cooperatives for sheep production and rangelands improvement based on traditional hema system. This would ensure rangeland conservation, application of proper grazing practices, and range improvement by planting fodder shrubs. This system has been supported by suitable legislation and financing organization. The paper described environmental degradation resulting from destruction of forests and grazingland that led to soil erosion and creation of mobile sand dunes. Efforts are being made to regenerate vegetation cover in order to stabilize soil in affected areas. Steps for establishing wildlife reserves have also been initiated to protect endangered animal and plant species. The hema system should be expanded as a measure to protect and manage grazingland, prohibit ploughing of marginal lands, establish range reserves; and provide alternative sources of energy for domestic use.

In Oman, range and woodland resources are threatened by early grazing, overgrazing, destruction of vegetation cover by off-road driving of vehicles, excessive lopping of woody species and encroachment by other land uses including urban and rural settlement. Activities to conserve Dhofar mountain vegetation and to rehabilitate degraded sites are conducted through both popular participation and direct government efforts. A trial to encourage grassland protection and deferment from grazing during the monsoon was carried out in collaboration with herders. Range extension-education campaigns targeting herders and other land users were organized to assist in harnessing degradation of land resources. The paper emphasized the need to enact appropriate legislation on range and forest resources. It proposed that use should be made of traditional management systems and herders experience in natural resource conservation for the implementation of environmental protection programme and adoption of viable land use policies.

In Egypt ploughing of grazing land to grow cereals. overgrazing and wind erosion that results in sand dune formation are prominent factors of rangelands degradation. However, an additional adverse phenomenon is the rising water table leading to salinization of irrigated land. An agricultural development and environment protection project is being executed in the north western coast of Egypt for checking desertification and initiating community development programme for the conservation and rational use of land resources. The project would also assist bedouins by creating economic activities that can encourage them to stick to their areas and refrain from migration to urban centre.

In Yemen, range resource conservation and development programmes were isolated attempts that covered very limited areas. Land degradation and desertification were caused by sand dune encroachment into productive land, salinization, and vegetation removal resulting in soil erosion particularly on slopes. The implications of these processes on the range resource are reduced productivity. increasing cost of maintaining livestock, poor livestock condition and reduced animal production. The paper categorized the major problems that confront rangeland development as follow: environmental (reflected in aridity}, insufficient efforts and resources, lack of wellconceived extension-education programmes, and uncoordinated activities of the concerned departments that waste resources and dilute efforts. The paper recommended several actions to improve and increase rangelands productivity through specialized programmes or as components of projects.

D) Field trip

Participants had the opportunity to visit Ma'in Pilot Grazing Perimeter, where a holistic resource management approach was adopted. Participants have been able to witness a viable trial of how a degraded site was rehabilitated and managed in close collaboration with bedouins and settled communities who have traditional right of use of the area. The officer-in-charge of the cooperative described the various interventions undertaken in the area, i.e. controlled grazing, planting of fodder shrubs, reseeding and water resource development.

Several positive indicators were recognized as improvement of the plant cover and forage productivity, reduced erosion hazard and enhancement of biological diversity in the area. This favourable condition was also reflected on improved animal production and bedouins income. These positive results encouraged other livestock owners to apply for membership of the cooperative. This pilot trial has underlined that rangeland development would be possible and could be economically viable if a holistic approach is adopted. It should be based on popular participation and the application of practices and techniques acceptable to beneficiaries and in harmony with local traditions and experience.