R.G. FONTAINE
The longest-serving FAO forester gives a personal viewpoint
TO HAVE PARTICIPATED in 1946 in the creation of FAO'S Forestry Division, at the side of its first Director, Marcel Leloup; to have worked through the great political, economic, social and scientific upheavals of the following 20 odd years; and then to have been called on in 1970 to direct the Forest Resources Division of the new FAO Forestry Department-this long experience poses a number of questions to answer. One must ask oneself again what is the nature and dimension of the forestry sector; what should be the objectives and structure of the services that must manage the sector; the nature and methods of research; the contents and methods of forestry education and, lastly, what after all is the forestry profession?
FAO, and more particularly the national forest services, have lately had to face drastic and fundamental changes that have characterized the move from a relatively stable era to an age of population explosion, scientific and technological revolution and soaring social aspirations. How can forestry and forest services best provide the benefits and services now in demand ?
Countries have been reacting in different ways to the changes that are occurring. National forest services have evolved into ministries of forests or ministries of the environment or natural resources, or have been absorbed into other services responsible for land use in general. In some countries, where new regions or provinces have been formed, the national forests within their boundaries are being wholly or in part handed over to local authorities. Some countries are grouping the productive public forests under the management of an office of an industrial or commercial character, even while the general public duties for the forest domain rest with a different agency. Some forest services are assuming wider responsibilities for hunting, inland fishing, national parks and wastelands, while elsewhere these responsibilities are being shared among other services in different ministries. Forest industries are in some countries controlled by the same body that controls the forests; in others they come under separate ministries or services. Finally, forest services which had formed clearly identifiable entities within a sector of a particular ministry have been broken up into a number of different services within the structure of a larger organization.
These modifications in forest services have been accompanied by changes in the organization of research and education. In many countries research remains confined to national research centres, while forestry education is being integrated into larger multidisciplinary bodies.
The history of forest services, and of forestry in general, shows that they have passed through three phases corresponding to the stages of recognition of the three fundamental roles of the forest: economic, physical and ecological, and social. In the first instance, the prime function of the forest was to supply people and industries with wood and wood products; the forest contributed to the construction of the fleets of the great maritime powers of the time. Subsequently, in the nineteenth century, came recognition of the rode of forestry in the environment. At the end of the nineteenth century and the beginning of the twentieth, basic regulations and laws began to appear which implicitly recognized the role of forestry in soil and water conservation. The social role of forests in relation to recreation and leisure received recognition much more recently, around the 1930s.
The second world war interrupted this historical progression but afterwards it regained speed and surpassed in intensity all the previous stages, a natural phenomenon well known to the biologist.
The forests had first to face the requirements of postwar reconstruction and rehabilitation. At this point the Third World Forestry (Congress, held at Helsinki in 1949, reaffirmed that the main role for forestry was to supply industries with raw materials, and a wide-ranging debate on "quality or quantity" ensued (Unasylva Vol. 4, No. 2, 1950). At Dehra Dun, India, in 1954, the Fourth World Forestry Congress laid emphasis on the role of forests in soil and water conservation. It was not until the fifth Congress, held at Seattle in 1960, that the social role of forests, that is the inclusion of recreational and leisure needs in multiple use of forests, received formal recognition.
In 1957, before relinquishing the post of Director of the Forestry Division, Marcel Leloup gave a resume in Unasylva of ten years' forestry activities in FAO, showing that during those years the Division had concentrated its efforts on four basic aims. These were: increased yield from forests now in use; reduction of waste; the opening-up of virgin forests; and the planting of new forests. He outlined a 15-point plan of action translated into 15 lines of activity for the Division. He emphasized that two important concepts lay behind FAO'S actions: improving yields from natural renewable resources (and this included rational land use just as much as sound forestry techniques) and considering the forest in relation to a complex of physical, economic, and social factors. His courses of action were based on the need to integrate forest management with, on the one hand, the use of lands associated with and surrounding the forest, and on the other with the industries which the forest supports.
This approach is still valid, but subsequent developments necessitate a reassessment of priorities, and a more detailed examination of certain features.
INTERNATIONAL DEVELOPMENT
A sequence of events has marked the development of the United Nations system of agencies, and of FAO in particular. In an initial period stretching from 1946 to 1958, international life was given shape and structure and various supporting organs became established. It was during this time that regional forestry offices were set up and a series of regional forestry conferences were organized, starting in Europe in Czechoslovakia, leading subsequently to the creation of FAO'S regional forestry commissions. The original mandate of these intergovernmental commissions was to advise on the formulation of forest policy and to coordinate the implementation of policies on the regional plane; to exchange information and advise on suitable practices and action in regard to technical and economic problems; and, finally, to make appropriate recommendations to FAO and to governments of the region.
This period also saw the appearance of a number of technical bodies like the International Poplar Commission, and certain consultative panels such as that on education. It also saw the establishment of close working relations with the regional economic commissions of the United Nations, one result of which was the joint ECE/FAO Timber Division at Geneva.
Those who took part in meetings of these bodies during this period will remember the enthusiasm shared by all the delegates and the conviction that they had a real role to play in reestablishing contact among foresters of all countries after the second world war, and in arriving at coherent forest policies.
In the 1960s, with so many countries achieving independence and becoming members of FAO and other United Nations agencies, emphasis shifted more and more to technical and financial assistance to the developing countries. The Expanded Programme of Technical Assistance was followed by the United Nations Special Fund for Economic Development, both eventually merged into the United Nations Development Programme (UNDP). Joint programmes came into being with the World Bank, and with other international banks and industries. At the same time came the FAO Freedom from Hunger Campaign-to rouse public opinion- and the UN/FAD World Food Programme - to use food surpluses for development. Forestry was prominent in all these programmes, and its field operations constituted the second largest block of projects in the whole of FAO. The growth of aid programmes was put into perspective at the last FAO Conference in 1969, when it was shown that for every dollar spent at Headquarters ten dollars were spent in the field.
This great expansion of international aid gave rise to many problems, frequently debated, and finally analysed in the reports termed briefly, from their authors, "Jackson" and "Pearson." The former was prepared for UNDP and dealt with the capacity of the United Nations and its Specialized Agencies to cope with development programmes of the future; the latter was prepared for the World Bank, and dealt with the investments required for development, where they should come from and how they should be absorbed. Finally came the Second World Food Congress, held at The Hague in 1970, which focussed on social problems and employment, and perhaps marked another turning point in the history of FAO. Certainly FAO and its Forestry Department are entering a new period when objectives, priorities, and the flexibility for implementation need to be surveyed again. This period coincides with what the United Nations terms the Second Development Decade.
An analysis of the principal problems at the beginning of the 1970s, of the role that forests can play in solving them, and of the favourable or unfavourable circumstances for forestry development, should make it possible to define the objectives and structure of any organization responsible for the forestry sector.
The problems that the forest can help to solve are:
· economic and social growth
· rural development and employment
· environment and pollution
· leisure and recreation.
ECONOMIC AND SOCIAL GROWTH
Economic and social growth and development are a constant preoccupation of governments faced with expanding populations and demands for higher living standards. Without entering into discussion on the differences which exist between growth and development, or the necessity to integrate them, it must be recognized that social and economic growth is of vital importance in the majority of countries, and their development plans reasonably propose growth rates of between 4 and 8 percent. The role the forest and forest industries can play in this economic and social growth in numerous regions must be emphasized, remembering the considerable contribution they have already made in economic development in certain areas - notably in the Mediterranean region at a time when forest products such as cork, charcoal and resin were in great demand.
The role of the forestry sector in development has been well described by Jack C. Westoby in his paper "Forest industries in the attack on economic under-development" (Unasylva Vol. 16, No. 67, 1962).
To accelerate the development of forest industries, forward planning must provide for raw material supplies in the necessary quantity and quality and at reasonable prices. Continuity of supply must be the objective of management, planned on the basis of continuous inventory, whereby the production of both goods and services can be automatically adapted to demand and available resources. Forest management plans have to cover not only production but also exploitation and transport, permitting close integration of the forest with forest industries. Finally, they must be in keeping with the objectives of national development plans, and phased into regional plans.
RURAL DEVELOPMENT AND EMPLOYMENT
Whatever decisions may one day be taken about population control, they cannot have any effect until at least one or two generations have passed. Thus world population is bound to go on increasing, and seems likely to reach a figure of some 6 000 million by the year 2000. Under such conditions there will not be sufficient capital for industrialization to provide enough employment, so it is only prudent to think in terms of maintaining a certain percentage of the population in rural areas. The rural areas then need to be reorganized, taking into account not only the rationalization of agricultural enterprises but also infrastructural works requiring little capital and a great deal of manpower. They should be designed not only to provide employment but also to prepare the way for later investment in, for instance, recreation, soil and water conservation, and even food production.
Forestry undertakings in the broadest sense can thus play an important function in integrated rural development. This integrated development envisages a great number of complementary actions in different fields, together with provision of the necessary incentives and institutional measures. Investments must bear relation to other measures essential for overall development. Projects should be concentrated in zones large enough to allow integrated action and to have an impact on the total economy of the country, but small enough to remain within the technical and financial means available. They may take the form of forest reservation, delimitation and management; reforestation with or without soil rehabilitation; fruit plantations on terraces or banquettes; range improvement; construction of tourist roads, and so on. The integrated rural development projects assisted in a number of countries by the World Food Programme, as illustrated elsewhere in this issue of Unasylva, are good examples.
ENVIRONMENT AND POLLUTION
In developed as well as developing countries it is recognized that industrialization and urbanization give rise to various forms of pollution which affect man's physical and mental health. The most common forms are pollution of the air by toxic products; water pollution by artificial fertilizers, pesticides and radioactive waste; pollution of the land by industrial waste and household refuse; and noise pollution, especially as a result of increased road and air traffic. The Secretary-General of the United Nations recently reported to the Economic and Social Council on the problems of the environment and its deterioration, for the purpose of providing a basis for the discussions at the Conference on Man and his Environment which will be held at Stockholm in 1972.
These problems are now widely known, but what is not yet enough appreciated is the role forests can play in combating these forms of pollution, by maintaining equable temperatures, reducing the carbon dioxide content of the atmosphere, regularizing the water regime and its purity, reducing noise, improving the countryside and in general ensuring the stability of the environment. Also the role of tree shelterbelts in protecting human habitats and crops against wind and against sand in fringe desert zones must not be forgotten.
Research must still be undertaken to determine exactly the function of the forest but it seems clear that if the biosphere could be partitioned off into stable forest ecosystems, not only the stability of the environment would be ensured but also a reserve of raw materials and space for recreational facilities would be created, under a system of management which respects the fundamental biological laws. Such an arrangement would also ensure the maintenance of habitat for wildlife.
LEISURE AND RECREATION
Recreation needs of the future are likely to rise steeply and the requirements of this new phenomenon have to be gauged with great care. The forests, mountains and coasts are the areas most suited for recreational purposes. Publicly-owned forests, especially in the neighbourhood of large cities, have always provided recreation facilities and many of them are often managed partially to this end. The forests also constitute areas where wildlife may be observed in the vicinity of urban areas. Because farming is becoming more rationalized and intensive, and wetlands are being transformed into a state less suited to wildlife, forested areas are becoming increasingly important for wildlife management and conservation. The opening of private forests to the public, with compensation to the owners, is currently under examination in some places.
Today's problem involves not only a more accurate estimate of future recreational needs but also an evaluation of the potential for recreation offered by different types of forest, taking into account the need to safeguard the surroundings and avoid having the services which the forest can provide spoiled by an excessive influx of visitors. Too great a recreational pressure on the forest leads to even more problems, not least that of unfortunate changes in the habitat. There is also the question of how one manages a forest for recreational purposes and what equipment is necessary.
All the foregoing considerations relate to forestry development in the broadest sense, which can proceed only if certain conditions are met. The following paragraphs outline the factors which favour or retard forestry development.
SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY
In the forestry sector, more than in others, observation and technology have preceded experimentation and science. In an article published only in 1951 on the scientific evolution of forestry, Professor Guinier claimed that there was indeed a forest science but it was only at its beginnings and its progress must be speeded up. It is accelerating now mainly because of studies in the field of biology. Remarkable progress has been made in genetics, physiology, ecology and pedology.
Rapid production depends on young ecosystems of high productivity, represented by artificial forests and forming the first stages of succession, often using relatively good land abandoned by agriculture and located in consideration of the industries which are going to use the wood. Such ecosystems can increase equally the total biomass and the number of certain important game animals.
On the other hand, for the protection of the environment and for recreational purposes, there are the natural forests, which are more varied but more stable and represent the later stages of succession. This does not by any means exclude the use of the more suitable natural forests for quality timber production, or the use of man-made plantations-of poplar, for example- as recreational zones along roads (see The evolution of forestry, by H. Beresford-Peirse, Unasylva Vol. 16 No. 67, 1962). The difference between a natural and an artificial ecosystem is essentially that the latter incorporates man into the system because he is the one in control and adds semantic to genetic memory, thus permitting the assembly, retrieval and processing of information as needed.
Other technical and scientific developments will allow better adaptation of the forest to the needs of society. For instance, operating techniques that allow a more flexible forest management; wood technology enabling better use of so-called secondary species; mechanization and work science bringing the resource into use under the best economic and social conditions; bio-climatology and forest hydrology providing better knowledge of the influence of trees on the microclimate and the water regime; using radioisotopes in forest research, and so on.
Lastly, it should be said that today the roles of science and technology seem to be reversed. In the past, technology generally preceded science, while now scientific discovery inspires technology. It is important that forest research institutes should devote a substantial part of their activities to basic research that can give rise to technological innovations. It was in this way that vegetative propagation techniques in the United States stemmed from studies of the development of tissue cultures and apical meristems; that basic research on evapotranspiration led to practical applications in the establishment and use of shelterbelts; and finally that detailed studies of atmospheric conditions led to better organization of forest fire control measures.
Today, given the importance of man-made forests, experimentation should be given more significance than simple observation. It is only by intervening that reactions can be provoked which can be identified and properly measured. An explanation can only be accepted as true when it is proved by controlled experiment, and a phenomenon is not properly understood and elucidated except in terms of precise mathematical analyses. Nevertheless, forests do constitute a vast natural laboratory and there is much to learn from the widespread observations and experiences of local forest services.
It is most important today to incorporate research investigations into actual development operations, to ensure that research is oriented toward real needs as much as to check on the progress of operations. This also helps ensure that the findings of the researchers are relayed to those responsible for development. One might cite in this regard the experimental code for the development of tropical forests drawn up by the Centre technique forestier tropical in France, now under study by the FAO Committee on Forest Development in the Tropics.
THE INSTITUTIONAL FRAMEWORK
Forestry development is facilitated by good institutions. Those that group together scattered forest properties into cooperatives, with credit and marketing facilities, are an example. In developed countries economic problems receive rather more attention than institutional ones but in developing countries, where credit at low rates of interest cannot readily be obtained, forestry development must be promoted through appropriate structures. Again, in developing countries land use practices are often tied to ways of life that are, in turn, reflections of powerful institutions, and forestry development can only be facilitated by studying these institutions and proposing new ones more conducive to development. The examples most frequently cited, and unfortunately still much in evidence, are shifting cultivation and rights of usage. Where there is strong population pressure it is generally useless to hope to develop a forest area if the authorities are unable to control shifting cultivation or supervise grazing rights within the forest.
In this respect one cannot overemphasize the value and necessity of well integrated organizing bodies able to ensure the compatibility of the different forms of land use.
TRAINING AND PUBLIC RELATIONS
Education and training are the most important factors for the mobilization of human resources. It is not intended to boat them here in detail, but only to stress that conventional teaching needs to be reformed so as to give students an overall view by which they can site their own activities in the general al setting of all other human activities. This requires the solution of the dilemma of training at the one time both generalists and specialists.
The question of public relations needs to receive closer attention. While in developing countries the government is generally the principal agent in forestry development. in developed countries public opinion is playing an increasingly important role and no forest policy can succeed without public support. It is therefore sound practice that decisions should be reached in consultation with groups identified as best representing public opinion. Ways must be found of keeping the public informed so that it can share first in making decisions and then in their implementation.
This information needs to be provided at various levels, starting with the forestry profession. One way is by means of supplementary courses organized by universities and forestry schools, but this raises the whole question of further education which is a problem in itself. As far as forest services are concerned, matters requiring attention are the use of public relations techniques to maintain contacts within the profession, consultation on major options, and the association of staff with decisions to be taken at government level. Public relations within forest services will grow in importance with the increasing involvement of these services in the conservation and management of the environment.
The general public then needs to be informed through mass media about problems and their proposed solutions. Perhaps one of the most effective means of arousing public interest in forestry is to welcome visitors into forest areas.
The role of the forest in modern society will become more and more important as the result of present-day insistence on conservation of the environment, the expected increases in demand for wood, and in general because of the search for a better quality of life. These factors have already profoundly affected the scope and depth of what is understood to be the forestry sector, which is in continual expansion and diversification.
For many tropical countries, especially, wood has long been a major element in international trade. It is likely to play an even more important role in the decades ahead. Not only is domestic demand expected to rise rapidly, but the proportion of forest products in exports to the developed countries will increase. In fact, FAO has estimated that world demand for tropical hardwoods in terms of roundwood will increase from the 1962 level of 23 million cubic metres to around 50 million by 1985.
Forests everywhere, but especially in the developed countries, will become one of the most important elements of the infrastructure in environmental conservation.
Because forests and associated lands afford facilities for recreation-the demand for which is rising in some countries by 10 percent per year-their organization will become an integral feature of forest management.
Given these many factors, it is indispensable that management of the forest domain-whether public or private-be in the hands of people who have received a multidisciplinary education in which ecology, sociology and economics all share, and who are capable of making decisions. The integrated approach to forestry development requires a new look at forestry education.
A more profound approach to certain matters-the equitable distribution of forest resources, pollution control, or the development of tourism -indicates that solutions will often be found and applied only at international level, because spoliation of the forest resource through overexploitation or pollution often has origins far removed from national or regional levels.
An international forestry system needs to be maintained and reinforced to provide a point of meeting for representatives of national forest services to discuss national and international problems, and to serve intergovernmental bodies responsible for taking decisions and formulating action programmes.
The structure of such a system should be sufficiently open to permit dialogue between all competent groups sharing the same interests-whether governmental or non-governmental. It should comprise teams of the widest multidisciplinary nature, to deal with programmes for the management and use of productive forests, extraction and transport, multiple forest use, industrial development, and so forth. Development planning, research, and forestry education should constitute separate programmes. Liaison channels-institutional or otherwise-would have to be available with other members of the United Nations family and with non-governmental bodies, for the study of matters of common interest. At the same time, a two-way flow of information with the public would have to be provided for.
At the national level, forest services will no longer be content with managing public forests and perhaps intervening in the management of private ones. They must accept their national responsibility to the environment as a whole. Forest policies must be coordinated with overall national policies on environment. At regional and local levels foresters must coordinate the activities of other departments involved. This leads to the importance of the management of rural areas. It is no use laying down policy if there are no competent technicians in the field to carry it out.
To conclude, bodies responsible for forestry, whether at national or international level, must not evade the double responsibility of conception and execution. Otherwise sound national policies for the conservation of the environment may fall by the wayside, despite well-informed public opinion, the goodwill of central administrations, and the support of all other interested groups.
