4. RESOURCE BASE

4.1 NATURAL ENDOWMENT

Each year during the wet season from June to September or October, a large part of the country is submerged under water giving the illusion of an inland sea connected to the open sea-the Bay of Bengal and the Indian Ocean. Then, during the dry season as the water level drops, more land appears and only perennial water bodies remain. These perennial waters include, among others the country's four main river systems: Jamuna River, Padma River, Brahmaputra River and Meghna River. Other important rivers are the Teesta, Surma, Shitalakhiya, Gumti, Muhuri, Halda, Karnaphuli, Madhumati, Buriganga, Dakatia, among others (Figure 1).

The whole country is a vast floodplain and has an extensive riverine and deltaic topography. Topographically, Bangladesh is a low-lying country. It is basically an agricultural country covering an area of about 144,000 km² or 55,600 miles² in total area (about half the size of Malaysia). Almost a third of the country or 44,000 km² is inland water area. Quantitatively, there are more than 1.58 million ha of perennial waters (30%) and 2.83 million ha of seasonal inland waters (about 4–6 months). In other words, arable land and other low-lying areas which retain monsoon water cover approximately another 29,500 km² or 70%.

Endowed with such an extensive fertile floodplain with 230 rivers, large and small crisscrossing it over 24,000 km network of riverine waters before draining into the Bay of Bengal, this natural land-water interface and interactive system offers excellent potentials and opportunities for fish production if and when properly managed (Rahman, 1989).

Although the land to water ratio is slightly more than 3:1, it is estimated that almost 50% of the country is under water or inundated from June to October each year. The remaining area comprises mainly of floodplain land and deltaic area used for agricultural purposes. Land is thus scarce and arable land even more limited in supply. Most of these arable land is already under cultivation.

There is thus very little scope for expansion of area under production for agriculture. Any expansion of output from agriculture has to come from greater intensification of production by employing knowledge-intensive systems of production and modern technology such as applying yield-increasing and yield-protecting inputs. There is, however great scope for much greater and higher output from fisheries through:

Figure 1. Major and Minor Rivers of Bangladesh

1. Intensification or greater use of modern inputs of production

2. Extensification or expansion of area under production (land-water interface)

Today, with the completion of more than 200 FCDI/FCD projects all over the country by the extensive land remodeling schemes and land engineering works through the construction of extensive levees, embankments, dykes and polders, these waters can and are now largely controllable and manageable. New FCDI/FCD projects are also either under construction or being planned. Also, the network of roads and riverine transportation is being expanded or improved upon through the construction or rehabilitation of more surfaced roads and bridges as well as dredging of rivers and waterways.

At present, the country has about 10,000 jalmahals or public water bodies under government ownership and jurisdiction, locally called sariatmahals and jalkars. These jalmahals can be either segments of rivers, canals, large low-lying natural depressions or haors, ox-bow lakes or baors, beels or small inland lakes and tanks. These public fisheries are leased out to the highest bidders on a short-term renewable basis by the Ministry of Land, Ministry of Fisheries and Livestock or the Upazila Parishad. The other remaining water bodies are under private ownership, locally known as maurasi jalkars.

Out of 10,000 jalmahals, 300 are under the direct supervision of the Department of Fisheries but jointly administered and managed by 3 different entities from the government and the industry through a Committee. The remaining 9,700 jalmahals are administered by the Ministry of Lands without any official involvement and direct input from the Department of Fisheries. Even the New Fisheries Management Policy (NFMP) which came into effect in 1986 does not cover all the 10,000 jalmahals except for 150 only.

Further, even the “Experiment in New Approaches to Improved Management of Open-Water Fisheries in Bangladesh” is carried out in only 12 selected jalmahals.

In addition, off the country's 480 km coastline is another 37,000 km² of shallow (50 m deep) water regime, out of a total continental shelf area of about 66,440 km² (BOBP, 1985). This shallow sea area comprises more than 50 % of the continental shelf. Further, the offshore waters in the Indian Ocean within the country's 200-mile Exclusive Economic Zone covers an estimated area of about 106,000 km². All these marine waters combined provide a suitable fishing and seafarming ground of about 125,000 km² for nearshore, coastal, offshore and deep sea fisheries exploitation.

4.2 CAPTURE FISHERIES

Capture fisheries can be classified into inland open water fisheries and marine fisheries.

4.2.1 Inland Open Water Fisheries

The inland open water fisheries, covering an estimated area of 4,268,740 ha is the single most socio-cultural-economically important fisheries in the country, annually contributing more than 50 % of the total recorded national fish catch (Table 1). The value of this fisheries with annual output of over 400,000 tons is, however not known nor any attempt has been made to quantify it.

The composition and distribution by major species is given in Table 6. The multi-species character of this fisheries (about 214 species: 161 freshwater and 53 marine) comprising a large share of low value high volume species and a smaller share of high value low volume species makes the valuation process even more difficult. A retail price assumption of Tk40/kg will place the value of this fisheries at Tk16 billion or US$457 million. At the low end, say Tk20/kg it will be worth Tk8 billion.

Without knowing its economic value in absolute terms by species and percentage distribution between and among the different species according to whether they are low value high volume or high value low volume species, development and investment planning of this fisheries become more complex. It becomes difficult to assign appropriate “weights” in prioritising investment ideas and the use of limited funds for such purposes. At the same time, criteria have to be developed for ranking investment ideas which have a high probability of success.

The species commonly landed include but are not necessarily limited to the species identified in the table below.

In addition, a large segment of the rural population also relies on these waters for their subsistence. This subsistence catch is not recorded in the fisheries statistics as they bypass the market channels. No data is available on the extent of such subsistence fisheries nor the quantity or value landed. It is, however generally agreed that it is quite large. Thus, the catch recorded in the fisheries statistics of the country is under-reporting the actual size of the catch. Rivers and floodplain waters (beels, haors, dighis, ox-bow lakes or baors) are the major fishing grounds under this category of fisheries.

Table 6. Composition and Distribution of Inland Open Water Fisheries by Major Species

Over the last 5 years from 1984–1989, landings from these waters have declined by slightly more than 10 % or 2 % a year. In and of itself, this decline is not too worrisome as the decline in absolute production level from 472,000 to 418,000 tons does not present the total picture of the fisheries. Additional details are needed to evaluate its consequences. For example, is the decline affecting all species across the board or only affecting the commercially important species? Are the less economically-valuable species affected ? Commercially important species usually experience greater fishing effort and pressure when compared to the less valuable fish. The predator-prey relationship also affects the complex population dynamics of the different species.

Experience shows that the collapse of a valuable fishery due to excessive fishing effort is often followed by the emergence of another less market-desirable species. In the case of the inland open water fisheries, has the more commercially important species been overfished? These are the types of questions which need to be addressed. Further, the number of fishing boats, gear types, degree and extent of mechanisation or motorisation and fishermen population (referred collectively as fishing effort) fishing in these waters is also not known.

Research is therefore urgently needed to estimate the catch per unit effort (CPUE) to determine whether there is cause for alarm at this declining production trend. The causes for this declining trend should also be examined with a view to reverse it by appropriate fisheries management regime (measures such as rules and regulations on mesh size, close and open seasons or areas, licensing, limited entry, pollution control at source, etc).

For example, Rahman (1989) reported that the average productivity of the floodplain fisheries was about 84 kg/ha/year in 1979/ 1980. It declined to 65 kg/ha/year by 1986/1987. He attributed the decline mainly to the loss of perennial waters in the flood-plain as a result of the extensive construction of FCDI/FCD projects.

Research is also required to document and confirm whether this fisheries is overcrowded in terms of the number of fishermen and fishing boats/gear or overcapitalised as far as capital investment in boats/gear/engines is concerned. Overcrowding or overcapitalisation imply that further entry of new fishermen and boats (investment) would clearly depress the fisheries further. It is reported that certain fisheries within this subsector is already uneconomic. Would artificial stocking and enhancement solve the problem?

More importantly, the stock size and the MSY have to be determined and worked out for rational exploitation. Along this line, the current level of resource exploitation, that is, whether the fisheries is being overfished or fished at or near the MSY level needs to be ascertained before it can be promoted as a potential investment.

A good example calling for caution is the public expenditures or investments in open water stocking. Both the IDA/World Bank Third Fisheries Project and the Asian Development Bank Second Aquaculture Project have sizeable component in open water stocking. If open water stocking is to be made an integral activity of fisheries development and management, closer attention should be given to where the stocking should be carried out.

As fishing is usually regarded as the employment of last resort, especially in the absence of other employment alternatives, entry of new fishermen not only cannot be limited, it cannot be stopped. This is because fisheries is a common property and open access resource system. Except for capital (cash) which may pose as an entry barrier, there are no other conceivable barriers to entry into this inland open water fisheries.

Can the fisheries (read resource base) support expanded production through additional investments in new boats and gear or engines? Potential investors would like to know all of these aspects, especially whether the fisheries is technically and/or economically efficient and the type of fishing technology currently being employed. Can new technology or modernisation of the existing fishing fleet increase production and productivity? Data collected for riverine and marine fisheries under the Department's “Fisheries Resources Survey System” (FRSS) may or may not be able to shed light on this aspect or the status of this important fisheries.

This is because the sampling methodology of the riverine and marine catch assessment survey is not sufficiently rigourous. The FRSS manual shows that not only is the number of sampled villages included in the survey inadequate (consisting of 3 villages, i.e 2 large and 1 medium), the villages themselves have not been randomly selected nor are they representative of all the villages found on a particular river system or coastal area.

Artificial Stocking and Enhancement:

One of the main activities being carried out by the government in inland open water fisheries development and management at present is the artificial stocking and management of inland open waters to replenish the natural stock as well as to redress the declining production trend and to fully use the carrying capacity of these waters.

Such activities are also being planned for the future ! A closer examination of this national programme shows that while stocking is periodically being done, little or no management (including monitoring and evaluation) is carried out. Lack of enforcement capability explains why little or no fisheries management is carried out.

Annually, Tk10–20 million (US$290,000–580,000) from the national treasury is being expended to stock the inland open waters. Its socioeconomic impact in terms of benefits to the people and community in terms of improved income and nutrition levels, number of additional jobs created or returns to this investment of scarce government funds is not known nor being monitored and assessed (see “An Idea for a Project Proposal”). So far, impact assessment or performance of the open water stocking programme has been measured very superficially. These are mainly limited to the activities and outputs of the programme as described below.

For example, in 1989 167 jalmahals all over the country were selected for artificial stocking; 34 out of a planned 40 million nursery-raised fingerlings measuring 2–5 inches were released in the presence of 8 members of the District and Upazila Jalmahal Management Committees. The species released are rohu (Labeo rohita), catla (Catla catla), mrigal (Cirrhina mrigala) and silver carp (Hypophthalmichthys molitrix).

The seeds were produced in 79 fish seed multiplication farms. The 4 species chosen for public stocking are commercially valuable food fish. Their prices range from Tk30/kg at the farm level to Tk100/kg at the retail level. All these 4 species can now be artificially produced. The above brief description thus sums up the extent of the performance evaluation or impact assessment of the public stocking of open waters. Little else, besides the programme outputs is known.

There is thus a real need to critically analyse its impact before the programme is allowed to continue on a larger scale. This is especially so since the government under its various GOB-financed activities has committed large sums of money for open water stocking under the different development budget projects.

For reasons to be determined by another study, 90 % of these seeds are stocked, in fact literally liberated in completely open free flowing waters. The choice of using rivers which have no means of confinement nor can any confining structures be inexpensively build needs to be re-examined. In addition, it is claimed that the stocking programme is supported by an effective programme of conservation and protection. Incidences of the fish stocked being fished out/caught a few hours after their liberation are also widely reported.

Without going into the details on the merits and demerits of artificial stocking and management of open waters, at the minimum some guarantee on protecting and recovering such investments must be assured. Protection of such investments can be obtained to a degree if some form of confinement is provided. In a fisheries situation such as found in this country where a large segment of the rural population (estimated at 80 %) is impoverished and living below the national poverty threshold pegged at Tk2, 350 (US$67), food gathering effort such as fishing pressure is great. The search for daily sustenance is simply overwhelming.

The fingerlings stocked cannot hope to survive and grow into market-size; a size which the fish has a chance to grow and attain, reaching maturity if allowed. They are thus denied the chance of first-round breeding. The fisheries is thus deprived of regeneration and recruitment, so vital for the sustainability of a renewable living resource.

All it takes is another half a year of waiting period for the fish to grow. Such fisheries management requirements are not understood nor appreciated by poor and impoverished fishermen.

In salmon ranching in the Pacific Northwest of North America, a 1 % return of the fish released to the river where the smolt are released is economically viable. In the case of the public stocking of open waters in Bangladesh, assuming that 10 % of the fish stocked is harvested and 90 % do not survive because of mortality from (transplantation) shock, natural and human predation from either harvesting them before they can reach market-size will result in 3,400,000 market-size fish. At 2 pieces/kg, this works out to 1,700,000 kg of fish. Priced at Tk50/kg, the value of this additional fish supply is Tk85 million (US$2.5 million).

Thus, on paper the 34 million fingerlings stocked in the 167 jalmahals in 1989 should return to the fisheries a catch worth at least Tk85 million. Has the value of the inland open water fisheries, especially the commercial subsector been increased by this amount since the stocking in 1989 ? This basic question has to be addressed before the programme is continued or expanded further.

Another set of cost figures show that it costs at least Tk2,300 or US$67 to stock a hectare of open waters in a floodplain and returns 300 kg of fish/ha. If the fish sells for Tk50/kg, this means that Tk15,000/ha can be expected from the public stocking of semi-closed waters as waters in the floodplain usually are with some form of confinement. These figures provide a partial picture of the economic and financial worth of the open water stocking programme.

Fisheries Laws, Rules and Regulations:

Bangladesh has enacted or legislated many laws, rules and regulations governing the exploitation, development, management and conservation of its fisheries resources. These laws, rules and regulations have not been strictly enforced. Some of the notable laws, rules and regulations are i) Pond Development Act, 1939, ii) Fisheries Protection and Conservation Act, 1950, iii) Marine Fisheries Ordinance, iv) Fish Inspection and Quality Control Ordinance, 1983 and v) New Fisheries Management Policy, 1986.

The main objective underlying all these fisheries laws and regulations is to provide the framework and mechanism for the orderly, efficient and rational exploitation, development and management of the country's fisheries sector and the aquatic resources it contains. The provisions are clear and well-intentioned but the execution and enforcement of these laws and regulations are sadly lacking. Fisheries monitoring and surveillance have to be immediately instituted to slow down and check further fisheries resource depletion. For example, the tiny mesh current jal or net which is illegal/banned is still widely used.

Prior to the enactment of the New Fisheries Management Policy (NFMP) in 1986, inland open water fisheries, especially the more than 10,000 public water fisheries (jalmahals) are leased out to the highest bidders for exploitation on a short-term basis. Under the old system, the highest bids are offered by the well-to-do members of the community who are either the local middlemen or businessmen or elite. These local middlemen or elite are not fishermen per se.

The bona-fide fishermen who are poor and operate small boats cannot compete in the bidding process as they do not have means to do so. The middlemen, having secured the titles of the lease to the water bodies in turn either hire small and poor fishermen to exploit the fisheries or grant/sub-lease the fishing rights to other middlemen or fishermen.

Because the middlemen are firstly not fishermen, secondly they do not completely rely on fishing as their (only) source of income, thirdly the lease is short and fourthly they may not be awarded the lease next year, they have no or little interest whatsoever to manage and conserve the fisheries resources. Due to the lack of proper enforcement of fisheries management and conservation measures, these leased water bodies are rapidly overfished.

The NFMP was introduced to remedy the situation. Under this new policy, only bona-fide fishermen are granted fishing rights to these public water bodies. This new policy development is important to the future of the country's inland fisheries as inland open water capture fisheries accounts for about 50 % of the total national fish landings and about 70 % of the total inland fish catch. Although the NFMP addresses the problems of overfishing and exploitation of smallscale fishermen by the middlemen, its impact and success is less clear. Irregularities and malpractices in leasing fishing rights are widely reported, thus circumventing the intent of the policy.

4.2.2 Marine Fisheries

The marine capture fisheries subsector comprises two distinct subsectors co-existing side by side each other: largescale commercial (commonly referred to as industrial fisheries in Bangladesh) and artisanal commercial and subsistence fisheries. This dual structure clearly manifests itself in the fishing technology employed. The commercial subsector is modern and large-scale while the artisanal fisheries is still largely traditional (almost primitive) and smallscale. This does not mean to say that the artisanal subsector is not modernising its fishing technology. Although not as common or widespread, motorisation of fishing boats has already taken place; only about 5,000 boats are motorised.

An examination of the fisheries statistics of the marine capture fisheries shows that this fisheries, especially the artisanal subsector is overcrowded and to an extent overcapitalised due to overcrowding. It is not so much overcapitalisation due to too much capital or the employment of capital-intensive technology like new and/or motorised boats, new and costly fishing nets and gear, and equipments but more so due to the sheer number of fishermen and boats.

Because of this and in view of the rate of exploitation in relation to the available inshore/nearshore fish stock, different authors have cautioned the entry of new capital or investments. For example, the 29 April 1991 cyclone has destroyed and/or damaged more than 50 % of the mechanised and non-motorised fishing boats respectively. Yet, the government with the assistance of the Food and Agriculture Organisation is undertaking the construction of new boats and repairing of damaged boats (as compensatory measures).

There is already excess capacity in the fishing fleet. Thus, instead of attracting these fishermen whose boats have either been lost or damaged out of the fisheries, they are given new or newly repaired boats. No argument is here made that they should not be compensated or assisted in starting their life again. These fishermen can conceivably be attracted out of the fisheries by providing them with alternative means of livelihood or employment with the same money used for repairing or constructing new boats.

Although the country only has about 480 km of coastline and 66,400 km² of shallow continental shelf, its extensive Sundarban shoreline provides a good sheltered base for its 3,022,000 full-and part-time fishermen. Its territorial sea and EEZ respectively cover an area of 10,000 km² (1 million ha) and 43,302 km² (4,330,200 ha).

The number of fishermen has increased almost 175 % since 1980/1981 from 1.1 million fishermen. During this time, there were only about 400,000 marine fishermen out of a total of 1.1 million fishermen in the whole country (BOBP, 1985). According to the Bay of Bengal Programme (1985), the fishing fleet then consisted of about 12,000 traditional boats, 2,700 motorised boats and 36 trawlers (31 private and 5 public). Today, there are more than 14,000 traditional boats, 3,317 motorised boats and 52 trawlers. There is as yet no distant water fisheries exploitation based in the country.

Table 7 presents data on the length of coastline, area of continental shelf, size of fishermen population and marine fish landing for Sri Lanka, India, Burma, Thailand, Malaysia, Indonesia and the Philippines. This will provide a comparison with the Bangladesh situation and how well the country is performing vis-a-vis the other countries.

With a coastline of 81,000 km, a shelf area of 770,000 km² and a fishermen population of about 2 million, Indonesia lands about 1.8 million tons of marine fish each year. Similarly, the Philippines with a coastline of 34,600 km and km² of shelf area and 1 million fishermen reports an annual marine fish catch of about 1.5 million tons. From this, it is conceivable that more can be done to develop the Bangladesh marine capture fisheries and also to introduce shallow water seafarming.

Table 7. Marine Fish Landings and Length of Coastline and Size of Continental Shelf for Selected Countries

Fishing boat motorisation is also not widespread yet. This is actually a blessing in disguise for the country because overfishing or resource depletion would have been more serious and difficult to resolve if motorisation is more widespread. Nor are there many boats with insulated fish holding facilities. In fact, not many boats carry ice in their holds when they go out to sea.

Thus, giving due considerations to the known marine resource situation and the present level of exploitation, further capitalisation of marine fishing should be done very cautiously and selectively.

In Bangladesh, iced fish or fish which has been iced or frozen is regarded as spoiled or not fresh. As Bangladesh consumers are not yet used to iced or frozen fish, there is a price differential between the two “product-forms” with iced fish fetching a lower price. This is another “awareness” problem which the public needs to be educated on.

Even though various fisheries and agriculture sector reviews have pointed out that the government should direct its effort in fish production to aquaculture and aquaculture techniques, the socioeconomic plights of the 497,000 full- and 2,525,000 part-time fishermen who depend on marine and inland fisheries should not be overlooked. Already eking out a bare existence, these marginal fishermen will face further hardship when such a policy is rigidly implemented.

i) Artisanal Marine Fisheries

The Bangladesh marine fisheries subsector is dominated by smallscale operations, commonly referred to as artisanal fisheries. It accounts for about 96% of the total marine fish landings and together with smallscale inland fisheries provides employment to 497,000 full- and 2,525,000 part-time fishermen. Of the 3,022,000 fishermen, about 40 % are marine fishermen. The rest fish in inland waters. However, as the interface between inland waters and the sea is well connected by an extensive system of accessible rivers, tributaries and canals, many of these fishermen move freely from one fisheries type to another.

Except those in the industrial fisheries, the boats employed in this subsector are largely non-motorised. As a result, they fish very close to the shore. The gear they use are mainly locally developed active gear in contrast to passive gear. Although artisanal fishing is not as efficient as industrial fishing, the rates of economic returns of artisanal fishing is still positive because of its low capital requirements and the cost of labour is not deducted from the total operational costs.

As correctly pointed out but for different reasons, further capitalisation of marine fishing should be done very cautiously (GOB, 1990). Since artisanal fisheries is usually the employment of last resort for many rural people, it does not necessarily follow that it provides greater employment opportunities which are rewarding or economical. In Bangladesh, artisanal fisheries is already overcrowded.

Given the near shore and inshore fish stock and the rates and levels of exploitation, entry of additional fishermen will further depress the fisheries, dissipating whatever remaining resource rent there is. As no rent will accrue to the fisheries, the fishermen will be even further impoverished.

It is with this in mind that the excess fishing effort be attracted out of the artisanal fisheries. As it is virtually impossible to limit entry into the fisheries, the government should take the necessary steps to attract them out. As the experience from other countries shows, this can be quite successfully accomplished by providing them with financially-attractive and rewarding alternative employment or income-generating opportunities. These opportunities can either be fishing or non-fishing related; the former being more preferred because of occupational familiarity.

However, before any effort is made to develop or to provide such opportunities, it is money well spend to determine the skills they possess, their willingness to undergo new skill or job training and their geographical and occupational mobility and aspirations for themselves and their children as well. This is a necessary task to ensure a minimum success of the government initiative.

If and when the redundant or excess fishermen are successfully attracted out of the fisheries, the fish stock will slowly recover and build up. As there will be less fishing pressures because a lesser number of fishermen will remain, the CPUE and average productivity will increase over time. Since fisheries already contributes about 80 % of the animal protein consumed in the country, the growing availability of fish will play an even bigger role in the local diet. The positive income elasticity of fish at 1.2 will assure that fish has a role and place in the local diet and thus a ready demand and market.

ii) Industrial Marine Fisheries

The term “industrial fisheries” as used in Bangladesh means largescale fisheries as opposed to artisanal fisheries. Industrial fisheries started in 1971 when 7 trawlers were first introduced into the country. This was followed by another 10 trawlers donated through the technical assistance of the Government of the Union of Sovereign Republics (USR), formerly the Union of Soviet Socialist Republic. According to Shahidullah (1983), there were 65 trawlers in 1983 (47 fish and 18 double rig shrimp trawlers). In fact, the emergence of largescale fishing began earlier when fishing boat motorisation was introduced in the mid-1960s. As a result, the fishing range and efficiency of the motorised boats is greatly increased. Because these boats can now venture further offshore, their fishing grounds are considerably enlarged.

At present, there are altogether 52 commercial trawlers fishing in the Bay of Bengal. Like the other fisheries subsectors, the largescale marine fisheries also suffers from inefficiency; each trawler only lands about 86 tons of shrimp and 154 tons of fish per hour of trawl. If catch statistics is any indication of the emerging trend, future trawl landings are expected to decline further.

Compared to the trawlers fishing in the South China Sea, Gulf of Thailand and North Java Sea whose productivity ranges from 200– 600 tons per hour of trawl haul, the productivity of the local trawlers is very low indeed ¡ This is all the more surprising given that the Bay of Bengal is one of the richest fishing grounds in the region.

Although industrial fisheries is set to expand fishing in the Bay of Bengal as successively promulgated in the country's five-year fisheries sectoral plans, recent landing statistics shows that not all is well with this subsector. Since such statistics is first compiled, industrial fish catch has consistently dropped from 15,000 tons in 1983/1984 to 10,000 tons in 1988/1989. This catch decline can partly be attributed to the decline in the number of trawlers from 65 in 1983 with average productivity of 230 tons per trawler per year to 52 in 1989 with average productivity of 190 tons/trawler/year.

This is in spite of the fact that the industrial fisheries subsector is subsidised by the government through different policy and financial incentives. The number of trawlers continues to decline in recent years. Clearly, a thorough investigation is required to determine what ails this subsector.

But more significantly, the expected private sector fisheries investments and joint-ventures did not materialise as planned. Not to mention that even the public sector expenditures for fisheries fall short of the planned target allocation due to government revenue shortfall, project implementation delays, inefficient project management and institutional and manpower limitations.

4.2.3 Hilsa Fishery

The hilsa (Hilsa ilisha) is an anadromous clupeid fish. Up until recently, its landings comprise about 40 % of the total inland fish catch from capture. Today, its catch has declined to about 30 %. Preliminary hilsa stock investigation and assessment by the Chandpur Riverine Research Institute shows that the “fishery is currently maintaining a stable state” (Rahman, 1989). However, reports from fishermen, in particular the old-timers and hilsa catch statistics dispute this preliminary finding.

In recent years, especially since the construction of the Farrakka Dam to divert water from the Ganges River, more and more hilsa are now being caught in the coastal and estuarine waters before they can return upstream to spawn. According to Rahman (1989), local fishermen catch migrating adult hilsa from May to October (main season) and the juveniles or jhatka stage from February to May each year. In addition to these 2 “sub-fisheries”, there is another one during the dry winter months from October to February when hilsa are also caught by the coastal fishermen.

Of the 3 types of hilsa fisheries, the jhatka exploitation from February to May is the most biologically and economically damaging to the fishery per se. This is because these jhatka are still young and immature. If allowed to grow further, total output would be several times higher.

The annual production of hilsa is estimated at about 242,000 tons distributed as follows: 152,000 tons from marine/estuarine waters and 90,000 tons from inland waters. Rahman (per comm, 1990) reports that the largest nursery ground is in the Meghna River, in and around Chandpur from Hazimara to Munshiganj. The harvest of jhatka starts in February and continues up to May or June. Jhatka fishing frequently even starts as early as November. During the peak jhatka run from February to May, Rahman (per comm, 1990) estimates that about 3,456 tons which is equivalent to 442.37 million young hilsa are landed. This is a big loss to the fishery and the nation as a whole.

This 442.37 million young hilsa with average weight of 7–8 gm each if left to grow to maturity or larger will be recruited into the fishery. They will in turn provide the fishery and the country with a greater output and new broodstock. The estimated economic benefits which will accure to the fisheries is worth at least Tk6.64 billion assuming that each hilsa will fetch Tk30 and a survival rate of 50 %. These benefits are obtained without having to incur any costs except patience and discipline. Of course, if fisheries laws and regulations banning the fishing of jhatka can be strictly enforced, the benefits will be even larger.

For a small investment in fisheries surveillance from the public coffers, it will return a disproportionately higher net income and benefit. Over time, campaigns to create awareness to gradually reduce and eventually stop indiscriminate fishing will also result in the development of a public- and/or self-policing capability within the general population in enforcing fisheries laws and regulations.

Also equally damaging is the inability and failure of the migrating mature fish to reach their spawning grounds in the upper reaches of the country's major rivers like Padma River. These two recent phenomena, that is human predation of immature and mature fish, especially gravid females and the impairment of or changes made to the fish's migratory paths/routes, habitat and breeding grounds combined will slowly but surely dessiminate the hilsa stock. This is simply because stock replenishment will decline arising from these adverse human or human-induced and environmental impact.

4.3 CULTURE FISHERIES

In Bangladesh, 4 different types of culture-based fisheries or aquaculture can be identified. They are largely determined by the nature of their production systems.

4.3.1 Pond Systems

Out of a total area of 4,410,000 ha of water bodies in Bangladesh, ponds, namely freshwater and brackishwater (mainly shrimp) ponds only occupy about 5.2 % of the total area. Although ponds occupy only 5 % of the total water areas or 229,320 ha, its output is much higher accounting for almost a fifth or 153,000 tons of the national fish output of 841,000 tons in 1988/89 (Table 1). This implies that the per unit productivity of ponds is much higher than the natural fisheries productivity of open water bodies, variously estimated at 50–60 kg/ha/year.

Thus, on average under Bangladesh conditions the pond system of fish production is more than 10 times as productive than under natural fisheries. Much higher productivity under intensive pond management system, however has been obtained locally under both experimental and field conditions. For example, the Chinese integrated fish farming system adapted to local conditions has annual yields of more than 10 tons/ha/year. Thus, the technology is already here to greatly increase fish output.

From this, it is clear that the existing production frontier for pond fish culture can be pushed out further by at least another tenfold from 0.6 to 10 tons. Aquaculture is thus the subsector which has both the potential, opportunity and promise of greater growth in fish supply for the country. At present, the country only utilises about 43 % of the total area available for fish culture in ponds as will be further elaborated below.

Freshwater Fish Ponds

There is an estimated 1.5 million ponds in the country, covering an area of 163,492 ha. Of these, 70,415 ha or 43 % are under fish culture and another 30 % or 49,776 ha cultivable or can be used for fish culture; the remaining 43,301 ha or 26 % are derelict ponds. The latter, presumably can be cleaned and rehabilitated for fish culture.

These fish ponds are mostly found in Rajshahi, Dinajpur, Jessore, Barisal, Mymensingh, Comilla and Chittagong. They range from 0.02–0.2 ha in size. Ninety percent (90 %) of these ponds are privately-owned and the rest are in the public domain.

While inland capture fisheries is exhibiting a declining production and productivity trend, the same cannot be said of inland culture fisheries. In the last 5 years (1983–1988), not only has area under production increased but output has also increased by 17 and 47 % respectively. Even so, the production systems continue to be grossly underutilised as the present per unit output, ranging from 200–1000 kg/ha/year can be increased by at least another tenfolds. For example, shrimp output can be increased to at least 1,500–2,000 kg/ha/year from its present 100 kg/ha/year and carp to 2,000–3000 kg/ha/year from its existing level of 200 kg/ha/year.

As a first step in stepping up fish production by culture, the government should concentrate its effort in those ponds within the 200 FCDI/FCD projects where the water level can be controlled. The other ponds can be taken up later. In addition, initial effort should also be directed to the FCDI/FCD projects which are readily accessible and close to the centres of consumption to minimise product disposal/marketing problems. For example, the Chandpur Irrigation Project (CIP) and Meghna-Dhonagoda Irrigation Project (MDIP) areas which have an estimated 30,000 ponds totaling 2,400 ha and 220 ha of ponds respectively should be taken up immediately.

Further, there is now a government fish hatchery in Raipur which can produce 300 kg of fry per year. This is in addition to the 25 private hatcheries or fish seed multiplication farms (fsmf) within the vicinity of the CIP/MDIP project areas. Thus, seed supply will not be a constraint nor is input supply for fish culture as these project areas are well connected to the urban centres. Besides fish pond owners, there are also about 5,000 families in the MDIP project area who depend on fishing for their livelihood. No comparable data is available for CIP.

Brackishwater Fish Ponds

Brackishwater aquaculture, in particular shrimp farming is carried out in the coastal districts of Khulna, Satkhira and Cox's Bazar. The system employed here is mainly by trapping the young fish and shrimp which come in with the incoming tide. As the tide goes out, the water gate is closed. In 1982/1983, there is a total of 51,834 ha of brackishwater ponds. By 1986/1987, the area has increased to 87,300 ha. Under the FFYP (1990–1995) for fisheries, the government has earmarked another 35,000 ha of new tidal areas to be brought under culture.

In addition to extensification or expanding area under production, the government should actively encourage appropriate production intensification. Government attention should also be actively focused on reducing the colossal loss of post-larvae due to high mortality stemming from inappropriate and improper handling and transportation and later post-stocking loss of seeds due to inappropriate water management and culture techniques.

As shrimp hatchery technology is still not well developed, the exploration of new post-larvae ground and their collection and nursery rearing and distribution will provide great opportunities for employment creation. On the other hand, the marine fish fry industry is not yet well developed because marine or brackishwater fish farming has not caught on in Bangladesh. Only those marine fish which are trapped in the brackishwater/shrimp ponds with the incoming tide such as the occasional seabass (Lates calcarifer), snapper (Lutjanus sp), mullet (Mugil sp) and other similar estuarine fish are retained for “fattening/further growth”.

4.3.2 Fish Pen and Cage Systems

For some reasons, pen and cage culture of fish have not caught on in Bangladesh. Pen and cage culture of fish are quick-yielding production opportunities for poor or landless or marginal people. More importantly, from the point of view of capital investment requirement, pen and cage culture can dispense with frequently prohibitive land acquisition costs. In short, its capital investment, fixed and variable (operating) costs are relatively lower.

Although its potentials have been looked into, its adoption and commercialisation have not been translated into practice. Pen and cage culture can be carried out in any suitable body of water with sufficient depth, water quality and natural productivity for pens and cages to be sited/constructed.

Bangladesh has a variety of such water bodies ranging from small rivers or khals, tributaries, borrow pits, roadside, drainage and irrigation canals to ox-bow lakes or baors (about 5,500 ha), Kaptai Lake (about 900 km² with average depth of 46 m) and similar manmade reservoirs which are available and can be used for pen and cage culture.

The main advantage of pen and cage culture for Bangladesh is that it does not require nor does it compete for land which is increasingly limited in supply. According to the Bangladesh Water Development Board, there are at least 40,000 ha of irrigation and drainage canals which are suitable for aquaculture production like pen and cage culture.

As pen and cage culture will also be practised from the edges of the berms and slopes of the FCDI/FCD embankments, dykes and polders, effort must be directed at minimum disturbance of the soil to prevent excessive wear and tear as well as erosion of the berm and embankment. Along this line, the technique and technology on minimum tillage for crop production can be adapted for pen and cage culture operations.

The choice of species to be stocked in pens and cages is very important as it will determine the success or failure of the production endeavour. Experimental trials to date with the following species in cages and pens, feeds and stocking density have been very discouraging: tilapia (Oreochromis mossambicus, O. niloticus), indigeneous and exotic carps such as rohu (Labeo rohita), catla (Catla catla), mrigal (Cirrhinus mrigala), silver carp (Hypophthalmichthys molitrix), common carp (Cyprinus carpio), as well as walking catfish or locally known as magur (Clarias batrachus), singhi (Heteropneustes fossilis), climbing perch or koi (Anabas testudineus) and snakehead (Channa striatus), and rice and wheat bran, mustard oil cake, water hyacinth leaf meal, blood meal and fish meal at 2–50 pieces/m² or m³ (Karim, 1988).

Karim (1988) also correctly pointed out that the introduction of pen and cage culture in a public water body can lead to resource use conflicts since inland waters are generally under pressure from other resource users for a variety of purposes. Many fishermen earn their livelihood from State-owned water bodies. Segments of rivers, canals, haors, baors, etc are leased out by the government to fisherman groups or individuals. Thus, the construction of pens and cages will reduce such water areas and at the same time create obstruction to fishing operations.

Also, water from canals along roads, railway tracks and FCDI/FCD dykes are often used by farmers for irrigation and for growing padi seedlings. Such conflicts may be further aggravated if a new set of people like the landless or poor rural people are alloted these water bodies for pen and cage culture of fish.

4.3.3 Integrated Fish Farming Systems

Similarly, the system of integrating fish farming with other production activities like crop and livestock production utilising the by-products or intermediate or even final products of the other integrated enterprises has not taken roots in Bangladesh although its practice/adoption is widely carried out in other countries. Experiments conducted locally using the Chinese system of integrated fish farming have demonstrated that yields of more than 10 tons/ha/year are possible with minimum application of purchased or costly inputs like inorganic/chemical fertilisers and feeds.

Thus, wherever feasible integration of aquaculture with agriculture and animal husbandry should be introduced as a general farming system. Steps can also be taken to selectively utilise municipality wastes and other factory/manufacturing plant/household by-products and wastes for fish production purposes.

Along with integration, Bangladesh fish farmers also practise polyculture. Polyculture is now referred to as composite culture where the composition and ratio of the different fish species are scientifically determined. It is based on maximising the use of the carrying capacity of the water column and pond bottom. The feeding behaviour and food niche of the fish are taken into account in determining stocking density.

4.3.4 Fish Seed Multiplication Farms (FSMF)

In the early 1960s, the government constructed more than 100 fish seed multiplication farms throughout the country with the sole purpose of increasing the supply of fish seeds. The species to be produced are mainly the indigenous and exotic carp. Each farm is programmed to produce from 200,000–300,000 pieces of 2.5 cm size fry per annum.

These earlier fsmf were only equipped with nursery and rearing ponds. As a rule, they were not involved in artificial spawning of fish but acted as “nursing and rearing” centres for fish seeds collected from the natural or wild fisheries. These farms are found in Tongi, Jessore, Jangalia (Comilla), Khadim Nagar (Sylhet), Natore (Rajshahi) and other strategic locations throughout the country.

Since then, these fsmf have assumed a greater and critical role in the artificial spawning and breeding of fish seeds of commercially important species. This has come about as hatchery techniques are perfected and acquired by the country's hatchery technicians and the government's initiative to wean the country's open water stocking and aquaculture programmes away from the sole or over-dependence on the wild stocks for seed supply.

Reliance on the wild and natural fisheries for its sources of seeds is actually a “zero sum game” activity because seeds are taken from Nature and returned to the wild under the open water stocking programme or stocked in fish ponds for aquaculture purposes. These seeds, if not harvested to be nursed and reared in the fsmf will otherwise remain in the wild fisheries. In other words, there is really no increase in total aggregate output from the fisheries, give or take the different rates of survival or mortality assumed in such production estimation.

In fact, aggregate fish output may actually be less because of the very high mortality of the seeds harvested due to improper handling and nursery techniques and poor overall management. The mortality is as high as 90 % at the point of first harvest. Thus, by employing artificial means of reproducing seeds under hatchery conditions, the aggregate supply of seeds is actually increased. This in turn increases the aggregate production of fish in the country due to the greater availability of seeds. The country has thus come a long way in meeting its own requirements for fish seeds.