FAO staff
This article, based on a paper prepared for the FAO Asia-Pacific Forestry Commission, identifies priorities for attention which are appropriate to the specific problems and potentials of forestry development in the Asia-Pacific region within the framework of the Tropical Forestry Action Plan (TFAP). Although the TFAP is aimed specifically at developing countries, appropriate political, technical and financial support on the part of industrialized nations, particularly in the Asia-Pacific region, is essential.
The Asia-Pacific region is a complex mosaic presenting tremendous diversity of social, economic, cultural, political and ecological conditions. The regional population of about 2600 million-half of the world's population-is forecast to increase to about 3200 million by the year 2000. Average population density in the region is approximately 135/km², but it ranges from less than 10/km² in some of the Pacific Islands to about 800/km² in Bangladesh.
The region includes eight of the 15 poorest countries in the world. It is estimated that about 290 million people were undernourished in the region in 1983. Average per caput income for the region is US$341 at 1980 prices. There is, however, considerable intercountry variation, with a figure as low as US$105 in Bhutan and Maldives as against about US$1600 in Malaysia. Landlessness is a serious problem in the region, and availability of arable land per agricultural labourer is only 0.8 ha.
With the exception of a few countries, for example the Republic of Korea and Singapore, industrialization has been slow. Economic growth and development in the region will continue to depend largely upon the performance of the agricultural sector. In 1985 agriculture accounted for about 67 percent of the total employment in the region.
Driven by population pressure, uncontrolled extension of agriculture and fuelwood collection, together with bad logging practices and a lack of overall forest management, has resulted in deforestation with cascading adverse environmental effects. Upland degradation has altered the water regimes, resulting in increasing floods and other problems including sedimentation, siltation of irrigation systems and landslides. Desertification, soil erosion, waterlogging, salinization and alkalinization, and loss of plant and animal genetic resources threaten to undermine the potential for achievement of long-term food security.
Forestry's present and future roles need to be assessed in this context.
The total forest area in the region is estimated to be 620 million ha, accounting for about 32 percent of the geographical area - 25.2 percent if forest fallows and area covered by shrubs are excluded. Average annual loss of forest cover during 1981-85 in the region is estimated at 2 million ha. Although plantation activity has gained momentum, it is still only about one-fifth of the rate of deforestation. However, if farm forestry, i.e. distribution of seedlings is included, tree-planting may reach the equivalent of million ha in India alone and probably three times that in Asia overall.
The management situation within the Asia-Pacific region varies considerably. Of the approximately 300 million ha of closed forests, only 190 million ha are productive. Exploitation without adequate investment toward regeneration is a major problem, especially in insular Southeast Asia and Oceania. Areas opened up by logging are often subjected to unplanned conversion to agriculture, especially by encroacher cultivators. The inherently low productivity of tropical forest soils, coupled with the absence of investment in maintaining fertility, makes such conversion unsustainable.
Total wood production from the region in 1987 was estimated to be 965 million m³, of which about 80 percent was used as fuelwood. Forest product exports have risen significantly during the past two decades and in 1987 the value of exports exceeded imports by about US$500 million. However, this is primarily due to large-scale harvesting of natural stands in insular Southeast Asia, the sustainability of which depends on significant reinvestment in regeneration efforts. In all other subregions, except Oceania, there is a substantial trade imbalance, with imports far exceeding exports.
While the region has emerged as a major supplier of sawnwood and plywood, it is highly dependent on imports to meet paper and paperboard requirements. These accounted for about US$2900 million out of a total forest products import bill of US$6870 million in 1987.
Demand for timber and firewood has already far exceeded sustainable supply, and with the expected growth of population and income, the gap will widen further. Shortage of fuelwood is a particularly serious problem, resulting in the over exploitation of accessible sources and diversion of agricultural residues and cow dung.
Although the importance of non-timber forest products to rural employment and income is well recognized, the potential of these products has not been fully tapped. Forests in the region are characterized by high biological diversity and are a storehouse of wild relatives of cultivated plants offering immense scope for future breeding programmes.
The already crucial role of forests and trees in maintaining a stable and productive environment, especially in the conservation of uplands, prevention of desertification and ecological restoration of degraded lands, is destined to increase in importance as the region moves toward the end of the twentieth century
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Composition of subregions by country 1. Continental Southeast Asia: Cambodia, Laos, Myanmar, Thailand, Viet Nam. 2. East Asia: China, Democratic People's Republic of Korea, Republic of Korea, Hong Kong. 3. Insular Southeast Asia: Brunei Darussalam, Indonesia, Malaysia, Philippines, Singapore. 4. South Asia: Afghanistan, Bangladesh, Bhutan, India, Maldives, Nepal, Pakistan, Sri Lanka. 5. Tropical Oceania: American Samoa, Fiji, French Polynesia, Guam, Kiribati, New Caledonia, Niue Island, Micronesia, Papua New Guinea, Samoa, Solomon Islands, Tonga, Vanuatu. |
Composition of subregions by country
Rapid growth of population will intensify the resource use conflicts requiring careful determination of the levels of trade-off between competing objectives in land uses. Failure to evolve a balanced system of forest resource use would accelerate degradation, undermining life support systems and leading to economic and social instability.
The Tropical Forestry Action Plan is an unprecedented international to stem the depletion of the tropical forests. It provides a strategy that is flexible and responds to carefully determined needs. Key elements of this strategy include intersectoral action to tackle the root causes of degradation and deforestation; coordination of local, national and international efforts to ensure the maximum synergistic effect; and active involvement of local people and the private sector in the conservation and management of forest and tree resources. The Plan has five integrally linked priority areas: forestry in land use; forest-based industrial development; fuelwood and energy; conservation of forest ecosystems; and the strengthening of relevant institutions to promote the conservation and wise use of tropical forests.
While the five components are meant to provide an articulated response to the challenges facing tropical forestry, the relative importance of each depends upon the specific conditions in the regions and countries concerned The subsequent sections of this article identify the challenges facing forest development in relation to each of the five TFAP components; and suggest priority areas of action, with special emphasis on subregional priorities (see Figure for composition of the subregions by country).
According to one FAO estimate, land degradation has affected about 514 million ha, or 27 percent of the land area, in the Asia-Pacific region. Deterioration of the upland or mountain watersheds, which constitute about 60 percent of the geographical area in the region, is a major concern for most countries in Asia and the Pacific.
The consequences of upland watershed degradation, particularly sedimentation, reservoir siltation and flood damage, are well documented. Although Asia accounts for only 29 percent of the global land area, it contributes some 79 percent of the total sediment load dumped in the sea each year. In India alone, floods affect 4.9 million ha annually, including 2.1 million ha of arable land. Throughout the region, irrigation and hydropower systems suffer accelerated siltation, drastically reducing their useful life.
Desertification is another major problem in the region. Extreme desert conditions exist on about 150 million ha in Afghanistan, China, India and Pakistan, and an additional 79 million ha in the region are at high risk of desertification. In almost all the arid tracts a reduction in the carrying capacity due to overexploitation of resources is evident.
Salinization and alkalinization affect 56 million ha in the region, mainly in China, India and Pakistan, in most cases a result of faulty water management on poorly drained soils.
AGROFORESTRY IN CHINA integrated cultivation of agricultural crops and Livistona chinesis palm
The causes of land degradation are many. While climatic, geological and physiographic factors influence vulnerability to degradation, anthropogenic factors play a key role in triggering and accelerating the process. Short fallow shifting cultivation; extension of cultivation to steep slopes without adequate investment in soil and water conservation; indiscriminate logging and excessive cutting of fuelwood; encroachment of subsistence agriculture on low productivity forest soils; overgrazing; and mining are some of the principal causes in the Asia-Pacific region.
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Subregional priorities for forestry in land use CONTINENTAL SOUTHEAST ASIA
· Focus on conservation farming and agroforestry as an alternative to shifting cultivation. · Since shifting cultivation cannot be stopped completely, improve current practices and provide alternative opportunities for employment and income. · Promote and support farm forestry, especially homestead tree cropping, in densely populated areas. EAST ASIA
· Revegetate degraded watersheds and combat desertification, especially in China. · Extend coverage and diversify crop combinations in agroforestry systems to improve productivity and enhance the supply of wood and other products. INSULAR SOUTHEAST ASIA
· Watershed management and adoption of tree-based farming systems in new settlement areas established under transmigration programmes. · Extend and improve programmes to promote settled cultivation in upland areas, similar to that being attempted under the integrated social forestry project in the Philippines. · Support homestead tree cropping to ensure economic viability. SOUTH ASIA
· Watershed management and reforestation of degraded catchments. · Control desertification and protect agricultural land from erosion and desiccation through establishment of wind-breaks and shelter-belts in the arid and semi-arid tracts. · Reclaim waste lands, especially those affected by salinity and alkalinity. · Reorient farm forestry to involve small and marginal farmers, with specific attention to silvipastoral systems. · Strengthen support to homestead tree cropping. TROPICAL OCEANIA
· Protect uplands to conserve soil and water resources. · Strengthen tree-based farming systems, especially homestead tree cropping. · Involve local communities, especially where land is under customary community ownership. |
To relieve the pressure on limited agricultural land, several countries in the region have undertaken organized resettlement programmes involving forest clearance. Unfortunately, these efforts have often been made without a proper assessment of land capability. This, coupled with the adoption of farming systems unsuitable to the site conditions, has led to land degradation, declines in productivity and to eventual abandonment of cultivation.
Role of forestry in integrated land use
While the basic cause of degradation, namely demand by increasing populations, cannot be tackled easily, the process may be reversed and productivity improved through suitable land husbandry practices. Some further expansion of agriculture into new lands is unavoidable to meet increasing food needs, but trees and woodlots must be appropriately integrated into land use to protect soil and water resources.
The importance of the supportive role of forests and trees is being recognized in development efforts in the region. Integrated watershed management projects invariably include forestation as a major component, and such systems as sloping agricultural land techniques, in which trees play a crucial role in arresting erosion and providing mulch, are getting wider attention.
The integrated social forestry programme for the upland cultivators in the Philippines, the voluntary settlement programme for shifting cultivators in Thailand, and the social forestry programme of Perum Perhutani in Java are some of the notable efforts to integrate farming with forestry. Conversely, tree cropping has been introduced into rural and agricultural development projects, as in the case of social forestry in India, the Upazila forestation programme in Bangladesh, and the shelterbelt and wind-break programme and the desert control programme in China.
A strategy for action
A strategy for restoration of degraded areas needs to pay particular attention to tackling the problem as part of a whole package of rural development. The importance of increasing agricultural productivity on existing cropland cannot be overstressed as a manner of reducing the pressure for land clearing. The productivity of common property resources must be raised while simultaneously ensuring access for the poorer sections of society, whose dependence on them is extremely high. Sustainable land management should be a shared responsibility of different agencies, and the traditional competitive approach needs to give way to a mutually supportive role.
Conservation of uplands through integrated watershed management is the most important priority for the Asia-Pacific region. The focus needs to shift from intensive curative approaches to extensive preventive approaches. Attention to meeting local needs is a prerequisite for ensuring sustained people's participation in upland restoration. Intensified shifting cultivation is increasingly practiced with shorter fallows, which results in serious degradation, but its total elimination is neither feasible nor advisable on account of its socio-cultural dimensions. Gradual improvement of tillage practices and introduction of tree crops, as in the case of the taungya system, would be a more appropriate option.
Reclamation of degraded areas, especially those affected by desertification, waterlogging, acidity and alkalinity, is another key approach. As most of the degradation processes are biotic in origin, tackling them will require appropriate technical treatment to be undertaken primarily by the responsible institutions.
Integration of tree cultivation with farming systems in the form of agroforestry, silvipasture and homestead tree growing needs to be strengthened. More emphasis needs to be given to developing technology packages that are appropriate for small and marginal farmers, and to establishing effective delivery mechanisms.
Industrial wood production in the region is highly dependent on natural forests, notwithstanding the long history of plantation forestry. Tropical rain forests in insular Southeast Asia and Oceania form the most important source of industrial wood supply in the region. The estimated logged area in 1985 was 59 million ha, of which 75 percent was in insular Southeast Asia.
Selective harvesting of commercially important species with minimal reinvestment has been the norm with regard to these forests. Treatment of logged areas lags behind owing to policy, institutional, financial and technical constraints. The problem is particularly serious in the areas logged by concessionaires; there are few incentives for regeneration, and existing mechanisms are inadequate to ensure compliance with government regeneration requirements. Encroachment of the logged areas by cultivators further complicates the problem.
In the rest of the region, particularly in East and South Asia, deforestation has undermined the resource base. Depletion of forests has taken place to such an extent that India and Thailand have imposed restrictions on felling of commercial timber species, and imports of logs have been encouraged to reduce the pressure on forests.
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Subregional priorities for forest-based industrial development CONTINENTAL SOUTHEAST ASIA
· Augment the production of sawnwood, and pulp and paper. · Bring more areas under systematic forest management based on long-term plans. · Substantially increase forestation of degraded areas. EAST ASIA
· Intensive management of existing plantations and increasing wood production through forestation of degraded areas. · In view of the growth of housing construction activities, increase investment in sawmilling with due attention to technological improvement. INSULAR SOUTHEAST ASIA
· Sustainable management of natural forests to maintain output of quality saw and veneer logs. · Emphasize investment in the treatment of logged areas to enhance regeneration. · Improve logging and transport systems to minimize damage and wastage. · Improve utilization of secondary species. · Improve domestic processing capacity, supported by adequate infrastructure and training facilities. · Promote sustainable management of non-wood forest products, especially rattan, with community participation. SOUTH ASIA
· Create new wood resources by raising plantations and enhancing their productivity, to form the main source of wood for the sawmilling and pulp and paper industry. · Develop non-wood forest products, with concomitant promotion of processing capability, especially of small-scale enterprises. TROPICAL OCEANIA
· Long-term sustainable management of forest resources. · Enhance domestic processing capacity. · Carefully monitor logging concessions to enhance benefits to the countries and local forest owners and to ensure long-run sustainability through adequate measures for regeneration. · Develop intensively managed human-made forests. · Enhance investment in physical infrastructure and human resources development. |
The estimated area of plantations in the region in 1985 was 22.3 million ha. Although potential productivity is high, wood supply from plantations accounts for less than 5 percent of total industrial wood production. This can be attributed to the high proportion of slow-growing hardwood species and to low yields arising from lack of investment in productivity-enhancing techniques.
The open forest areas, covering 57 million ha including bamboo stands, are also subjected to uncontrolled exploitation with very little investment. Growing stock and density have declined drastically, and severe biotic pressures, including fire, are accelerating the degradation process and reducing output.
Areas outside the natural forests are increasingly recognized as important sources of wood, for example plantations of rubber, coconut, etc., and trees on homesteads. About 80 percent of the wood supply in Bangladesh is obtained from homesteads. This has particularly important implications for the availability of fuelwood and raw materials for small-scale enterprises.
Non-wood forest products, including rattan, resins, gums, tannins, lac, oil-seeds and a large number of medicinal plants, play an important role in the rural economy of the region, and their collection, processing and marketing provide employment and income to a large number of people. Notwithstanding their important role in the rural economy, development of non-wood forest products has not received adequate attention. Most products are derived from natural growth, and the system of harvesting seldom takes into account their long-run sustainability.
Forest-based industries
The magnitude, structure, composition and geographical distribution of industrial production in the Asia-Pacific region have undergone significant changes during the past decade. Between 1976 and 1987, industrial roundwood production increased from 170.5 million m³ to 216.7 million m³. Exports of industrial roundwood accounted for about 12 percent of production, almost 92 percent in the form of saw and veneer logs. Malaysia has emerged as the leading log exporter, accounting for 91 percent of the exports from the region and 33 percent of world exports of saw and veneer logs in 1987.
SMALL-SCALE SAWMILL in Afghanistan
Sawmilling is the region's most important wood-based industry in terms of volume, with an estimated production of 68.0 million m³ in 1987. China, India, Indonesia, the Republic of Korea and Malaysia are the major producers, but with the exception of Indonesia, most of the output goes to domestic markets. In 1987 exports were some 9.0 million m³, 90 percent of this from insular Southeast Asia.
Sawmilling technology varies considerably, ranging from pit saws to modem, well-maintained band mills. Except in the case of export-oriented production, the industry is dominated by small-scale units. Although there is considerable scope for improving efficiency and reducing wastage, adoption of improved technology by these units is constrained by market limitations, raw material availability and access to credit. The growth in sawnwood consumption, which is forecast to reach about 100 million m³ in 2000, an increase of 40 million m³ over the 1986 level of consumption, and the expected shift in the source of wood supply from natural stands to plantations make this all the more important.
Wood-based panel production is another important industry in the region; production was 14.7 million m³ in 1987, 64 percent from insular Southeast Asia. Among the wood-based panels, almost 80 percent is in the form of plywood; the production of other panel products, namely particle board and fibreboard, is very low.
The scale of production and technology varies considerably across the plywood industry. Wastage arising from lack of suitable post-harvest treatment of logs and use of outdated machinery is substantial, particularly with regard to small-scale units. Consumption of wood-based panels in the region is expected to increase to 18 million m³ by 2000. While insular Southeast Asia and Oceania are expected to continue to depend on virgin stands for raw material, the countries of the other subregions will have to rely increasingly on plantation-grown timber.
In 1987 paper and paperboard production in the region was 17.3 million tonnes; an additional 4.0 million tonnes was imported, involving foreign exchange outlay of US$2900 million. By 2000 it is estimated that consumption of paper and paperboard will increase to 43.3 million tonnes. Considering the potential implications for foreign exchange, there is an urgent need to enhance investment in the industry with concomitant expansion of plantation activities.
There are also a large number of small-scale enterprises using wood and non-wood products. Limited studies have highlighted their importance as a source of off-farm employment and income. Major problems confronting small-scale enterprises are:
· declining availability of raw material and corresponding increase in prices, affecting the viability of processing activities;· inadequate entrepreneurial and marketing skills and consequent dependence on traders and other intermediaries;
· low value-added generation and lack of access to new techniques and processes, limiting the scope for product improvement and diversification;
· indiscriminate expansion of production without adequate assessment of market potential.
A strategy for action
A balanced approach to forest management and industrialization can make a significant contribution to socio-economic development. A strategy for sustainable development of forests and forest-based industries in the region needs to focus on the following:
Augmenting raw material supply. Regenerating logged-over natural forests, which will continue to be the main source of saw and veneer logs, merits high priority.
Increasing the productivity of plantations is another important area. Plantation management needs to be intensified through genetic improvement, fertilizer application and the adoption of soil and water conservation techniques. Other important aspects requiring attention are prevention and control of forest fires and management of pests and diseases.
Harvesting and processing. There is an urgent need to develop more efficient harvesting technologies and improve practices focusing on waste reduction, ergonomics and minimizing environmental damage. Post-harvest technology for both wood and non-wood products is poorly developed in the region. Loss due to fungal and insect damage is extremely severe. High priority should be given to developing simple and economically viable post-harvest treatment techniques that can be applied easily under field conditions.
Programme for small-scale enterprises. Facilitating access to raw material supply, appropriate technological changes to enhance product quality and diversification; training in entrepreneurial skills, especially for community management; and improving credit facilities are some aspects requiring attention in respect of small-scale enterprise development. There is a need to focus attention on the large number of locally important items and to design appropriate multiple-use forest management systems with local community involvement.
Biomass, including wood, is the major source of household energy for almost 80 percent of the population in South Asia. Although rapid industrialization has reduced the dependence on biofuels in some of the newly industrialized countries, widespread fuel switching is unlikely to take place in the immediate future.
While pockets of surplus supply of fuelwood exist, the overall situation in the region is quite alarming. Already in 1980, about 39 million people in the arid and semiarid and mountainous areas in Afghanistan, Pakistan and Nepal lived under conditions of acute scarcity. About 700 million people in Bangladesh, Indonesia, India, Nepal, Pakistan, the Philippines, Thailand and Viet Nam lived under deficit conditions. No recent assessment of the situation has been made, but the indications are that the fuelwood supply situation has worsened in all these countries. Since the problem builds up gradually, corrective action is often delayed until the adverse effects become apparent; at this stage they may be irreversible. Preventive action is therefore important even in fuelwood surplus areas.
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Subregional priorities for fuelwood and energy CONTINENTAL SOUTHEAST ASIA
· Enhance supply and reduce consumption through improved conversion efficiency. · Devote specific attention to small-farmer-oriented farm forestry and community forestry with a fuelwood component. · Step up the cooking stove programme, with people's participation. · In fuelwood surplus areas (Laos, Cambodia and parts of Myanmar) assess the scope for production of transformed energy. EAST ASIA
· Enhance supply of fuelwood through fuelwood plantations and farm forestry. · Strengthen programmes to reduce consumption through cooking stove improvement and increased use of biogas. · Improve use efficiency of other biofuels. INSULAR SOUTHEAST ASIA
· Support homestead tree cropping and improve conversion efficiency, including that of other biofuels. · Utilize logging residues through conversion to charcoal and briquetting. · Improve use of fuelwood through dendrothermal plants linked with fuelwood plantations where economically viable. SOUTH ASIA
· Enhance biomass supply through small-farmer-oriented farm forestry and community forestry. · Accelerate the cooking stove programme, with people's participation. · Improve the use efficiency of traditional fuels, including agricultural residues and cow dung. TROPICAL OCEANIA
· Manage existing resources in a sustainable manner, to ensure continuing surplus. · Develop wood gasification and dendrothermal plants to ease transport bottlenecks in providing conventional commercial energy. · Special attention to urban energy needs, especially of the poorer sections where access to commercial energy is limited. Needs include energy plantations near urban areas, improved efficiency of charcoal production, and accelerated introduction of improved cooking stove. |
Rural industries are also important users of wood energy; according to a study in Nepal they often account for as much as 20 percent of total fuelwood consumption. As many as 25 different industries, including brick and tile manufacturing, smithies, pottery, and tobacco and tea curing are primarily dependent on wood energy.
Enhancing fuelwood resources
Early efforts focused mainly on developing fuelwood plantations, essentially as a governmental activity, carried out by forest departments on government land. While concentrated production may be appropriate to meet urban and industrial demand, it has not significantly helped to resolve the rural energy crisis. Increased efforts are now being focused on tree-growing on farms or in small community woodlots appropriate to small and marginal farmers. Particular attention is being devoted to coppicing and pollarding which can produce significant volumes of fuelwood without cutting the whole tree.
IMPROVED COOKING STOVES designed to reduce fuelwood consumption
Improving efficiency of biofuel use
Cooking stove improvement could be a major step in enhancing the efficiency of household energy use in the region. There are about 170 stove programmes, and so far more than 2.5 million stoves have been introduced, mostly in India. Notwithstanding these numbers, the scale and rate of adoption of the programme is low in relation to the magnitude of the problem. To increase the use of improved cooking stoves, suitable designs which take into account the variety of heating needs and incorporate other considerations, including health, safety and convenience of use, must be developed. Involvement of the ultimate users in the design and production of cooking stoves is essential if large-scale replication is to be possible at the local level.
The reliance on wood energy does not imply a continued adherence to conventional forms of use. In areas of wood-fuel surplus, gasification and dendrothermal plants have considerable potential; pilot efforts are under way in Indonesia, the Philippines and Thailand. Co-generation through waste utilization could substantially improve energy availability to industries such as sawmills and rice mills, but technological improvements are required to facilitate their extensive adoption.
Since fuelwood supplies cannot be expected to increase significantly in the short run, a large number of rural people, especially in East and South Asia, will continue to depend on such non-wood biofuels as agricultural residues and cow dung. China and India have made significant progress in the use of biogas; however, large-scale adoption is currently constrained by a number of technical and economic bottlenecks.
A strategy for action
Earlier efforts, although isolated, have considerably increased the options available. While many of the constraints persist, the fuelwood and energy problem is no longer unmanageable. Technical know-how has improved significantly and ongoing efforts are expected to increase the range of alternatives. A framework for action needs to incorporate the following elements:
· in areas of high population concentration and fuelwood demand, efforts must concentrate on intensified on-farm tree planting with a focus on tree species that provide multiple benefits, including fuelwood;· in areas of moderate population density and with remaining forest resources, the focus should be on participatory management involving the users in sustained production.
In all cases special attention will be required to actions that result in more efficient use and therefore reduced demand for fuelwood. As fuelwood is increasingly commercialized, pricing policies that link fuelwood to energy as well as to forestry development plans will be required.
Athough knowledge of tropical forest ecosystems and the genetic resources of plants and animals they contain is generally weak, the situation is better in the Asia-Pacific region than in the other major regions.
There is widespread concern about conserving diversity both among and within plant species for their actual or potential economic, social, cultural and scientific values. The Indo-Malayan Biogeographical Realm, which covers several countries of the Asia-Pacific region, had a total of 572 protected areas in 1985 extending over 27.5 million ha, some 10 percent of the world's protected areas. Of the total, 161 protected areas covering some 9.3 million ha are in dry savannah forests, and 150 covering 13.3 million ha are in dense humid forests. In the South Pacific by 1985 there were 95 protected areas covering a total of approximately 0.8 million ha, only 0.15 percent of the geographical area.
Efforts are under way in some countries to establish a more comprehensive network of national parks and other categories of reserves covering representative samples of ecosystems. The Corbett Action Plan for Protected Areas of the Indo-Malayan Realm prepared during the 25th session of the IUCN's Commission on National Parks and Protected Areas and the Action Strategy for Protected Areas in the South Pacific Region formulated during the third South Pacific National Parks and Reserves Conference, have broadly outlined a strategy in this regard. Several biosphere reserves have been established, in an attempt to integrate conservation and management objectives through developing models for sustainable management. Sites such as the Sargarmatha (Everest) National Park in Nepal have been designated as World Heritage sites.
National institutes in India, Malaysia and Thailand have initiated pilot activities for in situ conservation of plant species. There is a growing interest in the conservation of the genetic resources of arboreal species in the arid and semi-arid areas on account of their potential for eco-restoration and provision of multiple benefits to rural populations.
Special measures for protection of endangered wildlife species have resulted in substantial improvements in their population status. A notable achievement in this regard concerns the tiger in India, whose population has increased significantly thanks to the efforts of the World Wide Fund for Nature (WWF). However, wildlife management continues to focus on protection from poaching and other biotic interferences; active habitat management generally is still at an undeveloped stage, largely owing to gaps in knowledge pertaining to ecosystem responses to manipulation. An exception to this is crocodile management in India, Indonesia and Papua New Guinea.
Ex situ conservation
There are some long-established botanical and zoological gardens in the region which contribute to ex situ conservation of wild plants and animals. Ex situ conservation stands have also been established for selected provenances of some of the important plantation species of the genera Araucaria, Pinus, Eucalyptus and Tectona. National organizations dealing specifically with plant genetic resources have been established in a number of countries, but they focus on crop resources; the coverage of forest species is very limited.
EX SITU CONSERVATION OF FOREST GENETIC RESOURCES in Indonesia
Challenges facing conservation of forest ecosystems
Conservation of forest ecosystems in the region faces several major challenges. Coverage of protected areas is not adequate, particularly in the South Pacific islands, and some of the major ecosystems, for example the lowland tropical rain forests of Malaysia, have been almost totally destroyed.
Protected areas often exist as islands, surrounded by densely populated areas with incompatible land uses. Absence of any direct interest to and involvement of local people makes it extremely difficult to protect these areas.
Efforts are heavily skewed toward protection from biotic interferences; active habitat manipulation is seldom undertaken. Knowledge of the dynamics of ecosystems and how they respond to interventions is inadequate. Conservation aspects in areas earmarked for other purposes are generally neglected, and very few efforts are made to arrive at acceptable levels of trade-off between competing objectives.
A strategy for action
The situation-specific nature of conservation needs makes it difficult to indicate priorities on a subregional basis. A basic strategy follows.
At the regional level, the emphasis in ecosystem conservation will need to be on the identification of forest ecosystems which are not afforded protection in national parks or similar reserves, with a view to promoting their protection. Humid forests in continental and insular Southeast Asia merit priority attention. The forests of the Western Ghats and the southern Himalayas in South Asia also require urgent conservation efforts. A priority for all of the countries in the tropical Oceania subregion should be the development of national conservation strategies.
Protection of wetland sites should also be seen as a general priority for the region.
This should be implemented as part of a comprehensive approach to water resource management and land use planning.
Of the 400 priority species identified in the region by the FAO Panel of Experts on Forest Gene Resources, 77 merit "Priority 1" attention for in situ conservation. These priority species should receive increased attention at both international and national levels. An effort should be made to complement the global/regional lists prepared by the Panel with more detailed national lists, which should also include species of local socio-economic importance in need of attention.
Nationally, activities envisaged will depend on the present level of efforts. In certain countries urgent priority has to be given to national surveys to catalogue the ecosystems and species in need of protection and management. In the case of countries that already have a national network of protected or in situ conservation areas, the effort should focus on their consolidation and effective management.
Long-term conservation of biological diversity depends on the development of location-specific techniques and systems for the management of tropical forest ecosystems and target species which are compatible with species and genetic resource conservation goals, and which at the same time ensure the sustained production of locally important goods and services.
There is a need for demonstration areas under management systems which are consistent with this to be established, and for information generated on approaches and techniques to be widely disseminated. This may be facilitated by the development of international networks.
People's participation in and benefits from protected areas will need to be strongly emphasized in conservation strategies. Buffer zones and their management will be key elements. The objective in this context will be to manage such zones so as to produce benefits for local people, thereby offsetting the effects of loss of access to resources in the related protected area.
SARGARMATHA (EVEREST) NATIONAL PARK in Nepal has been designated a World Heritage site
Ex situ conservation efforts
A more positive and deliberate approach needs to be adopted in relation to ex situ as a complement to in situ conservation of tropical forest resources. Regional and national bureaux for forest genetic resources need to be established, and coordinated regional programmes need to be developed, using an extended range of species and provenances. For wild animals, emphasis needs to be given to coordination of captive breeding initiatives. Establishing related data banks and networking between institutions will considerably enhance the efficacy of such programmes.
Effective implementation of strategies, programmes and projects requires a framework of supporting policies and institutions.
COMPENSATORY PLANTATIONS have been established in Malaysia, reflecting changes in forest policy
Although forest policies generally tend to reflect the views of the forest administration, with limited involvement or commitment from other organizations and departments, a number of significant changes have taken place in the forest policy framework in the region. The most important are reforestation through the contract responsibility system in China; the new national forest policy of India, giving emphasis to environmental conservation; the centralized structure for watershed management in Pakistan; the royal decree restricting logging in Thailand; the formation of timber estates in Indonesia; the reorganization of forest cooperatives in Viet Nam; and the establishment of compensatory plantations in Malaysia. Social and environmental functions are gradually being given higher priority, reflecting a significant departure from the conventional approach.
The shifting of administrative responsibilities to local institutions is another major development in the Asia-Pacific region. Several countries have already implemented decentralization, assigning administrative and developmental responsibility to district-level bodies (Upazilas, district councils, Panchayats, etc.). Existing departmental structures and the planning systems need to adapt to these changes.
Efforts to involve communities in the planting and management of trees have been quite successful where ownership of trees is well defined and the communities are provided with the necessary technical and financial support. Assigning tenurial rights to landless people and providing them with appropriate incentives would be a major step in reclaiming and improving the productivity of extensive degraded areas in the region.
Human resources development
No comprehensive assessment of forestry's human resources requirements has taken place in the region in the recent past, but the expansion of forestry activities envisaged under TFAP would enhance the demand for trained personnel considerably. This would be particularly felt in Southeast Asia and Oceania, where the understaffed forest departments are unable to supervise and effectively implement logging and regeneration operations. Large-scale forestation envisaged in Afghanistan, India, Nepal, Pakistan and Viet Nam would require substantial improvement in technical training facilities.
Forestry outside the forest estate requires a different kind of professional and technician. Establishment of the Regional Training Centre in Community Forestry at the Kasutsart University in Thailand is an important step in this direction. Among the issues requiring urgent attention is the updating of curricula for training forestry technicians and field-level workers.
Facilities for training in primary mechanical industries are very limited in the region. Most industries rely on on-the-job training, and therefore access to technological developments is extremely limited.
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What will it cost? Financing the TFAP in the Asia-Pacific region Estimates of the annual investment requirements for implementation of the TFAP in the Asia-Pacific region are based on three scenarios for the projected evolution of forest industries in the region. The FAO study Forest products: world outlook projections 1987-2000 forms the basis of the first scenario. For the second scenario regional self-sufficiency at the 1984 level is assumed to be applicable until 2000. The assumption of total self-sufficiency by 2000 is the basis of the investment estimate for the third scenario. Forest resource development and management will require an annual investment ranging from US$1740 million to 2230 million. Of this, investment in industrial wood production will be about US$550 million to 1040 million. Enhancing fuelwood supply through various programmes, including agroforestry, is forecast to cost about US$760 million. The estimated cost of development of forest-based based industries ranges from about US$3500 million to 6300 million. This is attributable to the high capital requirements of industries like pulp and paper, the capacity of which needs to be built up to avoid serious demand/supply imbalances and unsustainable expenditures of foreign exchange reserves. For example, in 1987 the regional import bill for pulp and paper was US$2900 million. Institutional development is another important item, requiring an annual investment of US$350 million. The three sources for funding of TFAP-related activities are direct government commitments; national private sector involvement; and international assistance, including loans and grants from the private sector as well as from bilateral and multilateral organizations. Often governments are not in a position to provide substantial allocations to forestry development, but ploughing back a larger share of income from forestry is essential to maintain and improve forest productivity. A major proportion of the required investment will have to come from the private sector. With an appropriate system of incentives and support programmes, this can be encouraged. Joint ventures could substantially reduce the requirement for government funds. Limitations in domestic resource mobilization will necessitate external funding, either from the private sector or from bilateral or multilateral agencies. Adequate measures will be necessary to ensure that adequate funding is assured. Particularly with regard to loans, it will be essential that funds be channelled to the most productive activities to avoid increasing the already high debt burden. |
Research
A shortage of qualified personnel is an important constraint in accelerating the pace of forestry research in the region. Contact between research workers needs improvement to facilitate sharing of information and to avoid costly duplication of efforts. Systems which balance social accountability with flexibility and scientific freedom need to be developed. The absence of long-term financial support and the lack of career prospects in research are other major problems which affect forestry research in the region.
In further developing forestry research it will be important to utilize and build on indigenous know-how. Local people possess an intimate knowledge of ecosystems and through trial and error have gained valuable experience and expertise.
Extension
Although forestry extension in the region has received considerable attention in the past decade, it continues to be weak. Furthermore, extension activities have tended to focus on the needs of large farmers at the expense of small and marginal farmers, the landless poor and women. One alternative would be to entrust extension to non-governmental organizations. In the Asia-Pacific region NGOs are quite active in generating environmental awareness and initiating appropriate development programmes. Their skills in promoting the involvement of people have not been fully utilized. Forestry subject-matter specialists could provide technical advice to agricultural extension workers.
A strategy for action
Institutional aspects tend to be highly country-specific, and hence indicating a line of action on a subregional basis is difficult. The broad framework for action required is indicated below.
Forestry policy and policy instruments. Particular attention needs to be focused on the review of forest policies and legislation in the context of the changing socio-economic environment. Assignment of land and tree tenure to disadvantaged groups and suitable support programmes are important elements for incorporation in revised forestry legislation. The policy formulation process needs streamlining to ensure a broad consensus and harmonization with overall resource use policies.
Improving administrative infrastructure. Attention needs to be focused on evolving a decentralized system with improved linkages to other rural developmental activities; and developing an effective planning mechanism that incorporates both top-down and bottom-up approaches. Modernizing the forest resource information system is another priority area for action.
Human resources development. Investment in forestry education and training needs to be stepped up to ensure quantitative and qualitative improvement. Broadening the education and training curricula, particularly by incorporating the social sciences, and improving facilities for periodically updating the technical know-how of forestry professionals and technicians are particularly important measures.
Strengthening research capabilities. Research priorities need to be more clearly defined at the national and local levels. Strengthening the existing institutions, ensuring long-run financial support, developing a management system which balances social accountability and flexibility, and utilizing and improving indigenous know-how are other priority areas for action.
Enhancing people's participation. The processes of extension aimed at promoting two-way communication and at fostering the active involvement of local people need particular emphasis. Specific attention needs to be given to participatory approaches in monitoring and evaluation. Forestry extension should be integrated with other extension systems, particularly agriculture, to ensure maximum impact.
Considerable scope exists for regional and subregional cooperation, particularly in the field of forestry education, training and research, and this should be fully utilized through the development of regional and subregional networks.
The TFAP is essentially a framework for action at the national level, but there is scope for complementary technical cooperation among countries, particularly in the Asia-Pacific region. Past efforts have provided valuable experience in tackling different aspects of the challenge of sustainable forestry development. The region therefore has the advantage of indigenous expertise in almost all of the priority areas identified in this article. The lessons learned and the expertise available should form the foundation for collaborative action at both regional and subregional levels.
Watershed management and institutional development, especially in research, education and training, are areas in which technical cooperation would be of considerable advantage. A well-thought-out strategy with adequate support from multilateral and bilateral agencies will help to hasten the pace of implementation of the TFAP, thereby enhancing the already multifaceted contributions of forestry to the development of the countries in the Asia-Pacific region.
