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The technical cooperation network on plant biotechnology (REDBIO)
The International Symposium on Plant Biotechnologies for Developed Countries, held in Luxembourg in June 1989 under the cosponsorship of FAO and the Technical Centre for Agricultural and Rural Cooperation (CTA), recommended that biotechnology be applied in developing countries to improve food crops. It was stated that biotechnology should be part of
a multidisciplinary approach for the genetic improvement of useful plants, and that there was a need to identify the priority issues that could be resolved through advanced plant biotechnology in developing countries. As a response, in 1992, FAO created the FAO/AGP Programme on Plant Biotechnology. The main objective of this programme is to facilitate access to plant biotechnology on the part of the national programmes of Member Nations, particularly those of the least developed countries. One of the mandates of the programme is to support regional networks in order to facilitate the transfer of these modern tools.
In order to response to regional needs, REDBIO, sponsored by FAO, was established following a round table held in November 1990 in Santiago, Chile. REDBIO's main objective has been to apply new technologies to crops of social and economic importance in Latin America and the Caribbean. As of April 1994, REDBIO comprised 323 member laboratories in 18 countries of Latin America and the Caribbean. The data bank also contains information in the field of animal biotechnology. The network aims to provide a permanent forum for scientific discussion, development and advance; to promote the exchange of biological material and information and access to new biotechnologies; to provide training; and to promote complementarily between research in developed countries and the network's laboratories. The network has a directory of personnel, an inventory of plant biotechnology laboratories, and details of priorities, species under study and technologies enabling it to determine levels of ability and offer a reference service. The purpose of the classification of biotechnology laboratories is to establish focal points for cooperative projects and programmes. Information mechanisms are also being established, including the preparation and publication of a periodic circular letter; the collection and publication of plant biotechnology protocols; interlinkage of, and access to data banks; and meetings to discuss priority areas in applied plant biotechnology. With regards to communication among REDBIO members, the Brazilian Centre of Bioinformatic Resources has recently established the Brazilian Network of Molecular Biology and Biotechnology (BMBBNET). This electronic mail allows members of REDBIO to exchange information about laboratories, visitors, consultants, scientific events and courses.
In coordination with subregional and national coordinators, REDBIO organized a regional meeting, BIOCILA, held in Caracas, Venezuela, in November 1992, and the First Meeting of Plant Biotechnology in Brazil. The regional meeting was attended by approximately 250 scientists from the region, the United States and Europe. The meeting in Brazil was attended by 407 experts from 95 laboratories as well as participants from Argentina, Belgium, Costa Rica, Cuba, France, Mexico, Paraguay, Peru, Switzerland, the United States and Uruguay.
Biotechnology research and development in the private sector
According to Sasson (1993), the development of plant biotechnologies in Latin America and the Caribbean was justified by the improvement in the capacity of manufacturing products to meet existing needs, maintenance of a competitive capacity on international markets, access to new markets, alleviation of dependence on imported inputs and its effects on the balance of payments, an orientation towards sustainable development and the conservation and use of genetic resources. Countries were advised to incorporate available biotechnologies into their productive sectors, while taking into account investment requirements, international developments and national capacities.
Jaffe (1988) analysed 21 companies in the region that were producing and selling biotechnological products. The study revealed that private companies in Argentina, Brazil,
Colombia, Costa Rica, Chile, Mexico, Uruguay and Venezuela are engaged in a commercial application of modern biotechnology for different purposes, including pharmaceutical, agricultural and industrial products. The positive results of this emerging sector are stimulating the participation of large international companies to invest in the region. Some of the leading companies in the region are Agroceres, Bioplanta and Biomatrix, Brazil; Levaplan, Colombia; Palma Tica, Costa Rica; Biotecnica, Chile; Bioquimex and Genesis Integral, Mexico; Semillas Santa Rosa, Uruguay; and Bioagro, Venezuela.
Biosafety issues in Latin America
At present, almost 73 percent of total biotechnology research has been directed towards the micropropagation of crop species. Projects using genetic engineering account for about 9 percent of research endeavours. After more than 20 years of progressive activity in plant biotechnological research, Latin America and the Caribbean are in a transition stage, where unsophisticated plant tissue culture techniques are expanding in many countries from the experimental to the productive stage. The multiplication of ornamental, horticultural, fruit and industrial crop species, as well as the recently growing adoption and, in some cases, development of some basic technologies such as molecular genetics tools applied to the diagnosis of diseases, genomic characterization and genetic transformation, were being developed in a smaller group of countries, such as Argentina, Brazil, Cuba and Mexico.
The release of genetically modified organisms developed in the industrialized countries has been considered to be the most important biosafety problem in Latin America. In early 1992, authorization for field testing of transformed plants was requested in the following countries: Mexico (eight requests), Costa Rica (one), Argentina (three), Chile (one) and Guatemala (one). Only Brazil, Cuba and Mexico had adopted biosafety regulations in the laboratory, all of which were based on those followed by the US National Institutes of Health. Only Argentina and Mexico had mechanisms for evaluating requests for field testing of genetically engineered organisms. Mexico had the widest experience in testing imported and locally developed transgenic plants, while relying on assistance from the U.S. Department of Agriculture. The relevant regulations were being established within existing norms on plant protection and seed marketing. At the end of 1991, Argentina set up an interministerial commission to evaluate requests for testing and releasing genetically engineered organisms. The same evaluation work was effected by an ad hoc commission in Costa Rica and Chile.
Code of conduct for plant biotechnology
Current plant biotechnology research is mainly being conducted in the industrialized world, which will have important consequences for agriculture in the developing countries. This study has shown that Latin America and the Caribbean have a relatively critical mass of institutions and laboratories to promote and develop biotechnologies to enhance agricultural production at low environmental cost.
Considering the wide availability of genetic resources in the region, the implementation of biotechnologies could, without affecting the environment, minimize the risks of dependence that have in the past exacerbated the differences between the developed countries and the countries of Latin America and the Caribbean.
One of the most controversial aspects of biotechnology is the potential danger attached to the introduction and manipulation of genetically modified organisms. Governments should reach legal and policy agreements establishing norms (codes and guidelines) to safeguard the interests and rights of individuals and to control the manipulation of genetically modified organisms during the experimental stages and subsequent industrial scaling up.
Advances in biotechnologies have led to intense discussion on the need to establish rights on multicellular forms of life and their inherent genetic resources, and on how this should be done. Genetic resources and their intrinsic biodiversity are the very essence of living matter and are the raw materials for crop improvement and production. This is the main reason for the controversy over the patenting of genetic resources. The patenting of genetic resources. i.e. of all living plant and animal matter, which could restrict access to the genetic resources that are humanity's universal heritage. The Fourth Meeting of the Commission on Plant Genetic Resources, held in April 1991 in Rome, Italy, agreed that the objectives of a Code of Conduct for Plant Biotechnology could be the promotion of biotechnologies for the conservation and use of plant genetic resources; unrestricted access to plant genetic resources; the promotion of biosafety to minimize risks to humans, animals and the environment; and the equitable distribution of the benefits of biotechnology between its practitioners and the germplasm donors. The role of modern biotechnologies in relation to biodiversity was discussed and argued at length at the recent United Nations Conference on Environment and Development (UNCED) in Rio de Janeiro, Brazil.
It was agreed during the meeting establishing the REDBIO, to promote the preparation and application of a Code of Conduct for Plant Biotechnology with regard to biosafety, regulations and patents.
The Workshop on the Code of Conduct for Plant Biotechnology, held in Santiago de Chile in December 1991, with the participation of 32 experts, aimed to:
The workshop participants listed the components of a Code of Conduct based on the CRGV meeting and generally acknowledged the need to establish a plant biotechnology information, advice and monitoring system. They suggested the use of FAO's Global Information and Early Warning System and of all the other mechanisms available within the framework of its global system of plant genetic resources, in coordination with other United Nations agencies. This need relates to biosafety, intellectual property, farmers' rights, socio-economic impact, appropriate biotechnology and the preservation and conservation of plant genetic resources. The system will provide free access to information to those involved in biotechnology and will develop the mechanisms for the compilation, storage and dissemination of this information.
UNCED: biodiversity and biotechnology
The Convention on Biodiversity and Agenda 21 were negotiated at the United Nations Conference on Environment and Development held in Rio de Janeiro, Brazil. The Convention was signed by more than 150 countries. The outcome of this conference and its implications for the region should be further examined and discussed because of the importance of these initiatives and their repercussions on the conservation and use of genetic resources.
Chapter 16 of Agenda 21 refers to biotechnology and highlights five programmes - three relevant to this paper:
With regard to the first point, the growing demand for food will require the effective use of biotechnologies in sustainable agriculture. Modern technologies should be used together with traditional enhancement methods for example to reduce dependency on agricultural chemicals; increase the use of integrated pest and disease control systems; use organisms for the natural fixation of nitrogen; and extend the application of biotechnology to forestry.
With regard to biosafety and the development of international cooperation, biotechnology will only produce its maximum benefits when there are sure methods of monitoring and control. The aim is to develop biotechnology safely, with support from international cooperation, the private sector, the non-governmental organizations, academic and scientific institutions. Efforts would have to be made to obtain procedures that are compatible with international agreements so that biotechnologies are used safely.
One of the most controversial aspects was the need for international guidelines on biosafety and on aspects related to intellectual property. The agreed text includes recommendations for international cooperation on intellectual property and innovation rights, including the rights of the plant breeder and farmer. There is also reference to the need for a guide to international agreements on safety precautions for the release of biotechnologically created products; to evaluation of biotechnology risks; and to the need for national legislation on liability and compensation.
Emphasis was laid on the need for greater efforts to increase biotechnology capacity in the developing countries, and for this to be developed and applied along environment-friendly lines. Human resource training, facilities, knowhow and economic resources were considered inadequate. It was therefore recommended that developing country capabilities be reinforced with appropriate funding. Biotechnologies should be applied particularly in developing countries with reinforced activities, research support, public awareness of the benefits and possible risks of biotechnologies, a favourable environment for investment, and promotion of scientific exchange without encouraging a "brain drain". All these initiatives should incorporate traditional methods and ethnic knowhow.
The consensus reached in Agenda 21 on genetic resources, biodiversity and biotechnology is generally in line with FAO policies. The FAO global system on plant genetic resources which includes a large section on biodiversity and many aspects of biotechnology was supported by much of the emphasis in Agenda 21. FAO's position on farmers' rights has also been reinforced by Agenda 21 with the specific call for their recognition.
As previously indicated, biotechnology in Latin America and the Caribbean, as in the rest of the world, has developed more rapidly for plant matter and therefore for agriculture, than for livestock and forestry. There are a number of different reasons for this, from biological reasons, such as plant cell totipotency (the ability to differentiate a whole plant), to economic, social and ethical reasons, such as medical studies and the genetic transformation of superior organisms. In any case, Latin America and the Caribbean are undergoing this "revolution" and biotechnologies are beginning to be the subject of research, education, promotion and trade.
Although modern biotechnologies are being applied in the region to agriculture to improve plants for the benefit of human beings, it is important to reflect on the orientations that this technological and economic process is assuming. Early plant biotechnology focused on micropropagation and although this continues to be the predominant application, according to recent surveys (over 60 percent of projects), biotechnology has naturally extended to other areas such as genetic improvement, the diagnosis of diseases, the production of secondary metabolites, the characterization of genotypes, genetic mapping, etc. All these, however, have the same central objective. If we consider all the aspects of biotechnology (commercial, social, ethical and political), we can see that biotechnologies are raising broad issues that cannot be dealt with by a single group, but rather by interdisciplinary groups whose participation will produce results which, whatever these may be, are more attune to the needs and realities of the region.
There are very few multidisciplinary research groups in Latin America and the Caribbean. Unless such linkages are encouraged, biotechnology projects are destined to resolve, at best, specific isolated problems without any impact in the field, where technological progress is needed. This is largely due to the absence of an interdisciplinary tradition and to an overly restrictive attitude on the part of researchers. For example, Eastmond et al. (1992) reveal that one of the characteristics of scientists in Mexico - and this applies to other countries - is the idea that pure research is superior to applied research. Even when the authors refer to biotechnological commercial activities (as an extension of the biotechnological process to the market sector), this reflection is valid for many biotechnology researchers in the region, where few plant biotechnology laboratories have a greenhouse or field plots for in vivo trials (even though a large percentage of tissue culture projects are for this purpose). There is, therefore, very little linkage between laboratory and field and among biotechnologists, agronomists and plant breeders. This situation should be changed to maximize effectively the biotechnology potential. FAO has identified this problem in its Plant Biotechnology Programme and will put forward remedial strategies.
If the region is to fully benefit from biotechnology, it should be considered in the first instance as a set of techniques that can help to improve organisms and micro-organisms useful to human beings, if applied correctly. This requires interdisciplinary action. The strategy should also consider genetic resources as raw material. The very advent of genetic engineering means that all genes (some existing in hitherto unknown organisms) are and will become increasingly important and useful. This strategy should focus on pure research and its effective application, through a chain in which the researchers, policy-makers, entrepreneurs, users and investors constitute the links from research to use.
This paper set out to review the biotechnology situation in the region, particularly plant biotechnology. Latin America and the Caribbean are clearly involved in the biotechnology "revolution" although with delays and serious limitations. Surveys conducted in the region indicate considerable diversity among the countries, but on the whole all biotechnology tools, including the most advanced are being applied experimentally and other technologies, mainly tissue culture, are being applied in practice and even commercially. There is also considerable and increasing Regional organization through the information exchange networks and the international organizations, with FAO playing an important catalytic role. The need to safeguard genetic resources and to promote their rational use when these are affected by biotechnology is further evidence of the level of regional organization, with the existence of a regionally supported voluntary code of conduct. Finally, it is important to stress that biotechnology, as a set of technological tools involving different disciplines, will play a significant integrative role in the region, hopefully bringing solutions to the many needs and expectations of the agricultural sector.
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