Current status and future prospects of modern biotechnologies in Latin America and the Caribbean

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Summary
Introduction
Applications of modern biotechnologies in Latin America and the Caribbean
Analysis of biotechnologies in Latin America and the Caribbean
The application of biotechnologies for livestock production
The technical cooperation network on plant biotechnology (REDBIO)
Biotechnology research and development in the private sector
Biosafety issues in Latin America
Code of conduct for plant biotechnology
UNCED: biodiversity and biotechnology
Final considerations
References

V. M. Villalobos
FAO Plant Production and Protection Division

Summary

This chapter analyses the status of modern biotechnologies in Latin America and the Caribbean on the basis of three surveys and recent scientific publications on the application of biotechnological tools, which reveal that the Region has both biotechnological advantages and needs, the main advantage being a vast biodiversity and the main need for a massive sustainable increase in agricultural production. As a set of technological tools, biotechnologies are beginning to play a significant role in strategies to increase agricultural productivity, rather than as an end in themselves.

These surveys also provide an indication of biotechnological trends in the region. Plant tissue culture has been practiced in Latin America since the late 1960s, initially for vegetative reproduction of plant species considered as biological models and subsequently with other species including fruit trees and woody species. This has helped to resolve practical problems and is being applied commercially. Molecular biology and recombinant DNA techniques have been applied since the mid-1980s, mainly as basic research. However, during the last five years, increased attention has been diverted to genetic engineering in different countries of the region.

Biotechnologies have been implemented more gradually in English-speaking Caribbean countries, and studies have recently been conducted to determine the priority crops on which to concentrate efforts and resources.

A number of obstacles have been identified that prevent the rapid and effective inclusion of modern biotechnologies in production processes and technological development: lack of highly trained personnel; lack of laboratory funding and operating resources; lack of venture capital and of confidence in industrial and financial circles regarding the capacity of national institutions to undertake technological ventures; no linkage between the academic world and the productive sector; no flexible information mechanisms; and the absence of a multidisciplinary approach, mainly between agronomists and biotechnologists.

To be productive, plant biotechnologies need to be considered as a set of tools which, if applied correctly, will help agricultural activities. In this connection, it is important to remember that the raw materials for modern biotechnologies are plant genetic resources. In this respect, the region is in a very favourable situation since it is an important centre of origin for a large number of plants and animals.

The Convention on Biodiversity and Agenda 21 were negotiated in June 1992 at the United Nations Conference on Environment and Development (UNCED) in Rio de Janeiro, Brazil, with over 150 countries signing the Convention. The outcome of this meeting and its implications for the region should be subsequently examined and discussed because of their importance and impact on the conservation and use of genetic resources for sustainable agriculture. The Convention assigned a high priority to the development of biotechnology, since these techniques allow for the conservation and adequate use of the gene pool existing in nature.

Introduction

Modern plant biotechnologies have been applied to biological systems in Latin America since the late 1960s and in the Caribbean since the early 1970s, mainly through tissue-culture techniques for studying the behaviour of plant cells, isolated tissues and through the study of hormonal and physical effects. Agricultural programmes have been pursued at the same time for the micropropagation of ornamental and horticultural species, mainly in the faculties of agronomy and biology, and subsequently in the institutes of agricultural research. Biotechnologies have more recently been introduced into livestock and forestry research.

In the early stages of applied biotechnology in the region, biological models formed the basis of many undergraduate theses, following extensive postgraduate training in developed countries, largely financed by the respective national scientific and technological programmes (such as the Brazilian National Research Council; the National Council for Science and Technology of Mexico and the Colombian Fund for Scientific Research). Some of the experts trained during this period are now in charge of scientific activities and laboratories in education and research centres and commercial companies. Others have been involved in policy decisions affecting biotechnology in some form or other.

After more than 20 years of progressive biotechnological research, the Region is undergoing a period of transition in which the more simple tissue-culture techniques have gradually moved from the experimental to the productive stage, mainly for the propagation of ornamental, horticultural and industrial species, and to the adoption of more fundamental techniques of molecular biology and genetics.

There has been a gradual interest in incorporating modern biotechnologies into research and education despite limited funds and personnel. Furthermore, there has been a gradual acceptance by professionals of biotechnologies as a set of tools to support crop improvement, particularly those involving in the agriculture sector.

Surveys and recent publications indicate a wide range of biotechnology developments within the region, from the most orthodox techniques such as plant micropropagation to genetic transformation through recombinant DNA. This reflects the different technical levels of scientific personnel and the availability of funds, factors that are generally conditioned by support policy for science and technology.

This paper aims to examine the current situation and the future outlook of biotechnological activities in the region, and to examine their present and potential uses for agriculture and forestry.

Applications of modern biotechnologies in Latin America and the Caribbean

A number of studies have drawn attention to the region's biotechnological advantages: its traditional involvement in agriculture and forestry; its vast diversity of species and microorganisms; its abundance of natural resources; a good scientific capability in some countries for medicine and biology in general; and active support for R&D. On the other hand, there are also

restrictive factors: limited or inexistent linkages between the academic and productive sectors; lack of venture capital; lack of political support; the brain drain; the reluctance to engage in long-term commitments; and a shortage of funds in universities and research centres. Moreover, limited funds for the development of biotechnologies have resulted in duplication of effort and have reduced incentives for reaching the critical scientific masses, in terms of salary, keeping up-to-date, publications, scientific meetings, reagents and procurement and maintenance of essential equipment. The potential of modern biotechnology is also being held back by insufficient research into strategic disciplines such as genetics and molecular biology, and by inadequate legal and regulatory measures.

Biotechnologies in the region are making notable practical contributions to agriculture, and to a less extent to forestry and the livestock sector.

For the reasons mentioned below, biotechnology has focused more on agriculture, as in the developed countries. Plant biotechnologies have been applied mainly to: (i) the natural fixation of nitrogen by bacteria; (ii) the micropropagation of elite material; (iii) the conservation, exchange and use of plant genetic resources; and (iv) genetic improvement through anther culture, somaclonal variation, protoplast fusion and plant regeneration, and genetic engineering. Livestock activity has focused mainly on: (i) diagnosing disease and preparing kits; (ii) in. vitro fertilization and embryo transfer; and (iii) the production of pathogens for the manufacture of vaccines. Biotechnology has not been applied to forestry to any great extent for technical reasons and because the species involved are perennials with long life cycles. This situation is universal and biotechnological work on woody species is mainly oriented towards research and the development of protocols for the multiplication of conifers and broad-leaved species; the cloning of rapid-growth plus trees (e.g. Eucalyptus hybrids in Brazil); the search for biochemical markers and the conservation of forest resources. Although recently there have been significant contributions to genetic engineering in forest species in Latin America, this development has still not been applied.

Analysis of biotechnologies in Latin America and the Caribbean

A number of surveys and studies have been carried out to determine the role, resources and potential of biotechnology in Latin America and the Caribbean, and to provide a framework to examine potential interinstitutional, regional and international collaboration (Sasson, 1993). Three major studies have been undertaken at different times: the 1986 CIAT Survey, Current Status and Future Outlook of Agricultural Biotechnology in Latin America and the Caribbean, that of IICA in 1988, Analysis of Agrobiotechnologies in Central America; and FAO's Regional Survey of Plant Biotechnology Laboratories (1989-1990).

The latter study examined biotechnologies in use; organisms under study; human, physical and financial resources; and major projects in the area. It also reported on institutional plans for the subsequent five years. These were subsequently considered in the FAO study to determine plant biotechnology progress during the five-year period, though no direct comparison could be made. The 1986 survey was based on 95 questionnaires from five geographical areas in the region: the Andes, Brazil, Mexico, the Southern Cone and Central America and the Caribbean. The survey revealed that some institutions had good potential for developing biotechnology for agriculture. It also brought to light an urgent need for interinstitutional collaboration in research and training, and indicated that agricultural research, development and production needed to be integrated in projects attuned to the needs of each crop or livestock production system. The most frequent technologies used in the region were those with the greatest short- and medium-term potential (e.g. tissue culture). The plants most frequently studied were those of greatest agricultural relevance; livestock (mainly ruminant) research was restricted to embryo transfer and, to a lesser extent, the bioproduction of vaccines; micro-organism studies focused on molecular research; and some limited work was carried out on forest species. A large proportion of those engaged in biotechnology had a high academic level (about 50 percent) and a high proportion was engaged in cell research. Another important fact was the need to absorb approximately 500 biotechnologists (40 percent postgraduates) within the subsequent five-year period.

The FAO Regional Office for Latin America and the Caribbean (FAO/RLAC) organized a second survey to assess plant biotechnology development. The general objective was to obtain up-to-date information on plant biotechnology development, application and prospects in different institutions of the region. A total of 150 laboratories in 15 countries was selected (Argentina, Bolivia, Brazil, Colombia, Costa Rica, Cuba, Chile, Dominican Republic, Ecuador, El Salvador, Guatemala, Mexico, Peru, Uruguay and Venezuela). The survey, which was carried out in person, comprised eight sections, including laboratory status, appropriateness for cooperative programmes and ability to handle advanced biotechnology. The survey began in October 1989 and was completed in January 1990.

This survey revealed a growing involvement of the private sector (27 percent) compared to 1986 (11 percent). The public sector accounted for 73 percent of this activity, with 32 percent in research and 40 percent in teaching and research.

Table 1
Distribution and level of staff resources in the 153 laboratories surveyed

¹ Research and teaching
² Research and technology transfer
³ Commercial

The heads of laboratory (16.4 percent of the total) had an average experience of 10.8 years and were specialized primarily in tissue culture and plant physiology (Table 2), followed by genetics and molecular biology (11.8 and 10.6 percent, respectively). This indicates a greater orientation towards basic biotechnology compared to 1986 (Roca, Amezsquita and Villalobos, 1986).

Table 2
Areas of specialization of heads of laboratory

In total, the laboratory staff carried out 1 367 projects , with 723 mainly involving basic technologies applied to food crops.

As in other studies, publication was taken as an indicator of productivity, since it represents the end-product of scientific research. There were 552 publications in the last three years, representing 0.67 percent per professional for the period under consideration. This very low productivity applies to all disciplines throughout the region. Latin America accounted for only 1.14 percent of total world publications in 1984 (BID, 1988). One possible explanation for biotechnology is that 28 percent of the laboratories have been in operation for less than three years and 27 percent make their findings directly available. However, the Region clearly has a limited tradition of producing scientific articles. This is the result of a number of factors: there are only a few more incentives to publish than not to, and advanced scientific journals in Spanish are few and poorly distributed.

Both surveys show that plant biotechnology laboratories mainly fulfil teaching and/or training functions because of their linkages to university institutions or research institutes. This is also supported by the fact that there were 537 theses in the last two years on areas of biotechnology research.

It was noted that plant biotechnologies are applied to a wide range of crops, including cereals (8 percent), pulses (4.8 percent), vegetables (8.9 percent), roots and tubers (7.2 percent), fruit (29 percent), industrial crops (10.2 percent), fodder crops (2.9 percent), woody species and ornamental plants (7.7 percent). A total of 63 percent of the projects carried out in the institutions surveyed involved cell and tissue culture, particularly in micropropagation. There was also a marked interest in genetic engineering and molecular biology which accounted for 8.6 percent of the projects. The conservation of germplasm featured in 10.1 percent, disease diagnosis in 10.1 percent, tolerance to adverse factors in 2.7 percent and protein research in 3.7 percent. Most practical biotechnologies such as plant micro-propagation are, therefore, extensively applied in much of Latin America and part of the Caribbean.

Biotechnologies were used for cereals in 108 projects, including molecular probes, genetic mapping and genetic transformation mainly for maize and rice. Similarly, anther culture and the obtention of haploid plants were mainly carried out for rice. The recognized leader in this particular field is the International Centre for Tropical Agriculture (CIAT) in Colombia. Root and tuber biotechnology was the focus of 347 projects, mostly involving cassava and sweet potato, with an emphasis on in vitro conservation of germplasm, diagnosis of viral diseases and micropropagation. The International Potato Centre (CIP) in Peru and CIAT have played an important role in training and in the transfer of technology and germplasm to national programmes.

Fruit, especially indigenous fruit, clearly has potential for the biotechnological obtention and multiplication of genotypes suitable for production for export and/or manufacture of juices and concentrates. There were 357 such projects, mainly using apex cultures. Similarly, greater attention is being paid to somatic embryogenesis and organogenesis in tropical fruits, and to disease diagnosis. The use of tissue culture for micropropagation of bananas and plantains is common practice in most Latin American tropical countries, and extremely efficient ventures are found in the region (such as Agribiotecnologia in Costa Rica).

There were 59 projects on pulses (beans 71 percent) with a predominant focus on tissue culture (43 percent) and genetic engineering (19 percent).

The FAO survey revealed that the major restrictions to biotechnology were training, budget and the lack of an information and/or research network. Table 3 grades the seriousness of these limitations in the opinion of the heads of the laboratories.

Table 3
Factors limiting laboratory activities

As expected, the laboratories varied considerably in terms of performance and facilities. Some were outstanding, while 42 percent showed shortcomings in basic training (53 percent) and infrastructure (18 percent).

The laboratories potential to develop genetic engineering and molecular biology was assessed on the basis of lines of research, productivity and scientific environment. A total of 15 percent of the laboratories was classified as highly efficient - excellent institutions developing and applying advanced biotechnologies in priority areas for the genetic improvement of crops. On the other hand, 25 percent lacked the funds and trained personnel to carry out frontline research.

The survey revealed that 35 percent of the laboratories were suitable for cooperative programmes. In contrast, 23 percent were considered unsuitable, while the remainder (42 percent) showed limitations in scientific level, training capacity and/or infrastructure.

The prospects of the laboratories were judged on the basis of their ability to develop and apply biotechnologies for genetic improvement and plant production. Approximately one-third (34 percent) of the laboratories will continue to focus on cell and tissue culture, while 22 percent will pursue genetic engineering activities, mainly gene transformation, gene mapping and characterization using RFLP and PCR.

Laboratory funding was found to be a limiting factor in the development of biotechnologies in the region. In many cases the main funding comes from the institution itself, the government budget and/or international sources (Table 4). Self-financing (the sale of services and plants) was the main source of income for 30 laboratories (19.6 percent). It was interesting to note that although only ten laboratories procured most of their funds from the sale of plants, 105 were commercially active with a total production of 26 million plants per year for the region as a whole. The number of propagated plants is significantly lower than the current and potential demand, so there should be a future increase in plant production and entrepreneurial activity. In this connection, most of the countries in the region offer a number of comparative advantages, such as low labour costs and favourable climate.

Table 4
Main source of funding for the survey laboratories.

This survey confirmed the existence of a dynamic body of institutions applying plant biotechnology for the main crops of the region. The laboratories carry out considerable research on production problems (723 projects). Genetic improvement and plant propagation, including that of indigenous species, are being conducted through molecular biology, genetic engineering and cell and tissue culture.

The laboratory staffing (1 066 technicians in 153 laboratories) includes 822 professional staff, 47 percent of which with postgraduate qualifications in areas related to plant biotechnology. There is an urgent need for short-term training and updating in genetic engineering, molecular biology, protoplast culture and molecular techniques for disease diagnosis, as was identified also by Roca, Amezsquita and Villalobos (1986).

The third study conducted by the Instituto Internactional the Ciencias Administrativas (IICA) in 1988 (Jaffe, 1988), refers to 26 Central American organizations involved in agricultural biotechnology research. Twelve were in the university sector, while the rest were public agricultural research organizations, production companies and international and regional centres. Twelve were in Costa Rica and seven in Guatemala (73 percent of the total). The distribution of human resources confirms the marked concentration of biotechnology activity in Costa Rica and Guatemala which together accounted for 85 percent of these organizations and 93 percent of researchers with postgraduate qualifications in areas related to biotechnology.

As in the rest of the region, most of the researchers were located in the universities and regional centres (79 percent). The public agricultural research organizations and private companies accounted for only 21 percent of the total and only 5 percent of laboratory staff with postgraduate qualifications.

Though the international and regional centres only represent 13 percent of the total number of organizations, they total 31 percent of the staff and 38 percent of the researchers with postgraduate qualifications. There is, therefore, a greater concentration of human resources in the centres than in the universities.

Table 5 details the financial and physical infrastructure resources for biotechnologies in Central America. The universities appear to be relatively well equipped but poorly funded in comparison with the international and regional centres. The public agricultural research organizations are in between the two.

It is interesting to note that plant biotechnology research has focused on industrial and export crops. In fact, 18 of the surveyed organizations study these crops, while ten concentrate on staple food crops such as roots, tubers, pulses and cereals.

Table 5
Organizations in Central America engaged in biotechnology research

There are four institutions in Central America with significant biotechnology research, application capacity and the ability to use advanced molecular and cell technologies. On the productive level, there are also a small number of enterprises using simpler biotechnologies that require low capital investment. There is a general shortage of high-level scientists, particularly in the national agricultural research organizations. The Tropical Agricultural Research and Training Centre (CATIE) in Costa Rica has been active in biotechnology training for tropical species through its Biotechnology Unit (Villalobos, 1988). Over 300 researchers received multidisciplinary biotechnology training between 1988 and 1991. Though over 60 percent came from Central America, this training opportunity was open to all Latin America and the Caribbean. Subsequent follow-up indicates that only some 50 percent of those trained have remained in the field of biotechnology. This is unfortunate for the development of biotechnology, especially in Central America where there is a clear shortage of resources, particularly funds and staff.

The very few companies in Central America using biotechnologies have limited experience, mainly involving plant cloning (e.g. Agribiotecnologia of Costa Rica and Palma Tica), the transfer of bovine embryos and the production of animal vaccines.

Biotechnology work in the subregion is generally dispersed, particularly in the universities and the public agricultural research organizations. There is a clear lack of communication between laboratories in the same institution and between institutions within and outside the country. Failure to rectify this, will result in the repetition of mistakes and unnecessary expenditure. It is also clear that the current systems and policies for research funding are not conducive to interdisciplinary or interinstitutional work.

The international and regional centres in Central America account for much of the R&D, so there is strong subregional dependence upon them for biotechnologies. This is also the case of many university research groups and national institutions, because of their low operating budgets and capital investment. The regional economy is not, therefore, in a position to support the current level of R&D investment and the cost of biotechnology (Jaffe, 1988).

Given the inadequate national science and technology policies, and strategies in the countries of Central America, with perhaps the exception of Costa Rica, it is not surprising that there are no national policies for biotechnology development. However, there have been two recent initiatives to establish such policies which are essential for the consolidation and development of capacities, and to exploit biotechnologies for general agricultural and economic development.

The surveys undertaken in the region permit a comparative and realistic study of biotechnology trends, priorities and limitations. In this connection, the Technical Cooperation Network on Plant Biotechnology (REDBIO), established following the concerns identified in the FAO survey and previous recommendations, should permanently update information and serve as a mechanism to disseminate and promote interdisciplinary regional work.

Practical applications of biotechnology in the English-speaking Caribbean are relatively new. In collaboration with the ministries of agriculture and research and development institutions, FAO coordinated a yam and cassava development project whose main objective was to reinforce tissue culture laboratories and units for the in vitro propagation of important roots and tubers. This permitted a significant exchange of information and collaboration among national institutions, the University of the West Indies and the Caribbean Agricultural Research and Development Institute (CARDI). This project and other actions have furthered progress in tissue culture mainly for micropropagation and the production and distribution of disease-free material. The species studied were selected on the basis of their importance for the region, with a particular emphasis on yam, cassava, sweet potato, banana, plantain, cocoyam and tarot The English-speaking Caribbean has an in vitro germplasm bank in Trinidad and Tobago, as well as micropropagation units in Dominica, Barbados and Jamaica.

These units are supported by regional institutions such as CARDI, and international bodies such as CIAT and CIP. The priorities are mainly the obtention of elite material for subsistence and/or export crops important to the national economies. There have been instances of biotechnology research on protoplast culture and somaclonal variant selection for crops such as jute, cocoyam and taro, but there is a serious shortage of trained staff and a clear need to upgrade equipment and infrastructure.

A conference was held in October 1991 in Kingston, Jamaica, on Tissue Culture Technology for Improved Farm Production, under the sponsorship of the Scientific Research Council. The participants including scientists from the area and guest speakers examined biotechnology potential in the Caribbean. They emphasized the need to participate in existing information networks to join forces in seeking international support for postgraduate training and actively to promote biotechnologies for the benefit of the Caribbean countries.

The application of biotechnologies for livestock production

The application of biotechnologies for animal production is more recent in Latin America than for plant production. In 1988, following the recommendations of the First Meeting of the Livestock Development Commission for Latin America and the Caribbean, FAO initiated a series of activities to strengthen institutions in the region working with biotechnology applied to animal production and health, making research contracts with some institutions, in order that they could be better equipped and could function in the medium term as trainers in advanced technologies in the region. In the same year, FAO sponsored the Technical Cooperation Network on Animal Production and Health and carried out biotechnology activities in seven countries of the region: Argentina, Brazil, Colombia, Chile, Cuba, Mexico and Uruguay. The various national institutes in these countries have undertaken specific activities using biotechnologies; these mainly involve: manipulation of DNA monoclonal antibodies, in vitro fertilization, embryo manipulation, immunoassay with radio-isotopes or enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA).

To understand the animal biotechnology development in the region, it is important to mention that until the 1980s the industrialized countries generated and developed the majority of the advanced technologies mentioned above. However, in that decade, Latin American and Caribbean countries underwent a serious economic crisis that prevented them from making the necessary investments so that research institutions and scientific services in support of livestock development could maintain their rate of development and purchase the equipment and instruments demanded by these new technologies. The economic crisis also prevented or reduced programmes for updating and training of scientific personnel.

In view of the above, the majority of scientific institutions in support of livestock development in Latin America and the Caribbean, such as research institutes, schools and facilities of veterinary medicine, schools and faculties of zootechnics, and veterinary diagnostic laboratories, are the only users of modern biotechnological products, which are produced in industrialized countries. Very few of them undertake basic research that will generate knowledge and new technologies in this field. Some institutions with greater biotechnological development do however exist in some countries in Latin America. The most important developments in these countries are indicated below:

The Centre of Research in Veterinary Sciences of the Institute of Nutrition and Food Technology (INTA), Argentina, has conducted research into disease diagnosis involving technologies for the production of immunogens through genetic engineering; the expression of FMD viral antigens in eukaryote vectors; the production of Brucellosis antigens through genetic engineering; the development of diagnostic methods for cattle diseases through nucleic acid hybridization; and the production of monoclonal antibodies for rotavirus, bovine herpes virus and FMD virus. The institute provides training in Babesiasis immunology, recombinant vaccines and the vectors used for their preparation. Letters of understanding have been signed with organizations to establish support units to improve dairy cattle and strengthen in vitro fertilization research.

The Biotechnology Centre of the State of Rio Grande do Sul in Brazil, and the Federal University of Rio Grande do Sul (UFRGS), are conducting research into vaccines against the Boophilus microplus tick using molecular methods. Molecular studies are also being carried out for the vaccine against Babesia spp through recombinant DNA and characterization of Babesia proteases to be included in the vaccine. Work is also being undertaken in the repeat sequence cloning of DNA bacteria for the diagnosis and identification of parasites. Molecular studies are also being conducted on the disease caused by Echinococcus granulosus and on its antigens.

The VP 1 and VP 3 in the E. cold expression for FMD are being studied, and monoclonal antibodies against local FMD strains are being produced. Monoclonal antibody techniques are being used to characterize viral diseases. CENARGEN recently offered a course in in vitro fertilization for participants from nine countries.

Major research is being undertaken in the Institute of Animal Reproduction at the University of Southern Chile, particularly on immunogens and immunodiagnostics, including ELISA tests and monoclonal antibodies for Brucellosis. Financial support has also been provided for predelivery calf embryo production.

Work is being undertaken in Colombia with the Research Laboratory in Veterinary Medicine (LIMV) of the Colombian Agricultural Institute (ICA). The major research work is on the diagnosis of cattle diseases through DNA probes and monoclonal antibodies, immunogens, vaccines with recombinant DNA synthesized through gene suppression and the preparation of antileukaemics and interferons.

The National Institute of Forest, Agriculture and Livestock Research (INIFAP-SARH) in Mexico is working on various vaccines. It is also promoting the establishment of two genetic engineering research centres for pure and applied research into animal production problems. More specifically, work is being undertaken on immunodiagnostics and vaccines through genetic engineering, monoclonal antibodies and ELISA tests.

The Veterinary Research Centre of Miguel C. Rubino in Montevideo, Uruguay, is working on immunodiagnosis and vaccines using ELISA techniques for different diseases. Work is under way with monoclonal antibodies for different agents and the production of vaccines through genetic engineering.

Though biotechnology for animal production is recent in Latin America and the Caribbean, considerable progress has been made and there is a clear trend towards future commercialization, which will further boost its development. Of particular note is the limited work being undertaken on the conservation of germplasm, particularly indigenous germplasm. Whereas biotechnologies have been very active in conserving the genetic diversity of plant matter, little has been done to conserve animal genetic diversity. FAO convened a meeting of experts in Rome in early April 1992 to address this issue.

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