Nutrition and household food security: their importance for national forest programmes
A. Dependency on forest and trees for household food security and nutrition
A.1. Forests as sources of food
A.2. Forests as sources of fuelwood
A.3. Forests and in kind contributions to the household economy
A.4. Forests and medicinal plants
C. developing tools for assessing dependency of local population on forests and trees
Forests and trees can contribute to household food security and appropriate nutrition through a variety of mechanisms. Local people can use them to meet household needs in terms of food, fuelwood, shelter, income, medicine. They also contribute to sustainable development through environmental protection.
- In predominantly subsistence economies in remote areas, many forest and tree foods make important contributions to household nutrition. Forest foods combine foods from plant and animal origin. Plant foods are often classified into fruits and seeds, nectars and saps, stems and tubers, leaves and mushrooms. Animal foods can be of invertebrate (insects and insect larvae) or vertebrate (bushmeat or fish) origin. Almost everything that is edible is consumed. Forest foods or ''bush foods'' are often associated with wild or non-cultivated plants and animals. The dichotomy between "wild" and "domesticated" is however often artificial as the analysis of local farming systems in forested areas world-wide shows a continuum from subsistence foraging to commercial agriculture. The dividing line between foraging and agriculture is therefore a thin one.
- Forest foods provide a wide variety of nutrients: carbohydrates, such as starches, fructose and other soluble sugars, protein, fats and micronutrients (vitamins and minerals). Different parts of the same species are consumed as food by different population groups. This is, for example, the case in various palm varieties: local people consume palm foods as cooked fruits, as hearts of palm, as vegetable oil, as palm wine (the sap is rich in protein, vitamins and iron) or in the form of flour for baking. Their high contents in fats and beta-carotene render them particularly important for the nutritional welfare of the population. Another example is the baobab (Adansonia Digitata): the leaves, either fresh or dried and ground to a powder, are added to the staple of grain crops. The fruit is also eaten. Processing techniques also vary from one population group to another, determining the nutritional content and quality of the food eaten.
- In many parts of the world, hunting still remains an important subsistence activity and bushmeat still provides a critical source of protein for both urban and rural populations. In Amazonia, indigenous groups living near large rivers acquire up to 85% of their dietary protein through fishing. Snails and rats may be eaten several times a week in some villages.
- Although neither forest nor tree foods are typically dietary staples, they do play an important supplementary role in the diet.
Contribution to the energy content of the diet of three populations in Cameroon (Koppert et al., "Food consumption in three forest populations of the southern coastal area of Cameroon: Yassa, Mvae, Bakola", in Tropical forests, people and food, UNESCO, 1993)
Contribution to the protein content of the diet of three populations in Cameroon (Koppert et al., "Food consumption in three forest populations of the southern coastal area of Cameroon: Yassa, Mvae, Bakola", in Tropical forests, people and food, UNESCO, 1993)
Forest foods contribute to diet diversity and consequently may improve the quantity and quality of food intake. Seasonality is an important constraint for foraging and determines, to a great extent, variations in the diet of indigenous people. Seasonality constraints have therefore generally been built into traditional farming systems. Forest foods also provide a safety net before harvest when food supplies are low, and during famines or natural disasters. In many agricultural communities, people rely on a staple crop, the seasonality of which implies periods of food shortage -usually referred to as "lean season" or "hungry season" which affect in priority the poorest households. In lean periods, when few cultivated varieties of food are available, storage facilities are empty and/or money is in short supply, hunting and gathering helps alleviate seasonal hunger. This explains while the peak collection of forest fruit does not occur during the main fruiting season, when fruits are most plentiful, but rather when they are most needed, that is when cultivated food supplies dwindle and the requirements for agricultural labour are limited. Some forest foods are also consumed in times of scarcity as a substitute for staple foods.
Table 1. Seasonal variation in food products available in the village of Kibangu.
Minor season |
Major season | |||||||||||
Dry |
Rainy |
Dry |
Rainy | |||||||||
(Jan-Feb) |
(Mar-May) |
(Jun-Aug) |
(Sep-Dec) | |||||||||
J |
F |
M |
A |
M |
J |
J |
A |
S |
O |
N |
D | |
Harvest period |
Dry period |
Transition per. |
Lean period | |||||||||
Manioc |
Manioc |
Manioc |
Manioc | |||||||||
Maize |
Maize |
Maize |
Mushrooms | |||||||||
Cowpeas |
Cowpeas |
Dry Cowpeas |
Wild leaves | |||||||||
Millet |
Millet |
Millet |
Manioc leaves | |||||||||
Bitter Cucumber |
B. Cucumber |
B. Cucumber |
Fruits | |||||||||
Sweet potatoes |
Sweet potatoes |
Wild leaves |
||||||||||
Yams |
Yams |
Yams |
||||||||||
Palm oil |
Freshwater fish |
Palm oil |
||||||||||
Peanuts |
Grasshoppers |
Dried Peanuts |
||||||||||
Beans |
Wild snakes |
Fruits | ||||||||||
Leaves and wild plants |
Wild leaves |
Insects |
||||||||||
Manioc leaves |
Rats |
|||||||||||
Groundnuts |
Game |
|||||||||||
Palm nuts |
Fruits |
|||||||||||
Fruits |
||||||||||||
Fresh caterpillars |
||||||||||||
Bought products |
||||||||||||
("Seasonal Variation of Diet and Nutritional Status of Young Children in Villages of Kwango-Kwitiu, Zaire Kukwiikila et al., in Tropical Forests, People and Food, UNESCO, 1993).
- The contribution of forest foods to nutrition also varies both among and within households. Poor and landless people are often more dependent on forest foods than those with moderate incomes: one study reports that poor and landless Thai households depend on forest foods 5-6 clays a week while moderate income people rely on forest foods, on average, 3 days a week. Fruits and seeds are consumed as snacks mainly by children and in some cases by women. Ntomba children in Zaïre also collect small fry, caterpillars, grasshoppers, crickets which they share among themselves. Some of these foods are actually considered as child food. In Haiti, children are reported to miss school in periods of food scarcity in order to complement their diet with foraging. In the Andes, berries from wild shrubs are eaten by children and constitute a major source of vitamins in their diet.
- Forest foods can be life saving in times of famine or natural disasters as roots, stems and honey can provide energy. In areas when rainfall is low and erratic, fruits of trees and shrubs play an important role as emergency food. Generally however the collection, processing and preparation of such foods is time consuming and they are therefore being progressively abandoned with increasing commercialization and degradation of forest resources. People tend to rely more and more on markets and food aid in times of emergency.
Without fuelwood from forests, food consumption or meal frequency may decrease due to rationed cooking times. In turn, the nutritional well-being of household members may suffer. Fuelwood scarcity may also increase the incidence of illness resulting from improperly prepared food. Finally, as fuelwood becomes scarce, women spend more time collecting it, leaving less time for food production, food preparation, income generation, child care and rest.
Forest products, both wood and non-wood forest products, have been traditionally used as construction materials or to make ropes, containers, kitchen utensils, tools, canoes or clothing. Many of these in-kind contributions are crucial. Tens of thousands of tons of baobab leaves are thus harvested every year in West African countries. However production and consumption remain entirely a local affair and only a small proportion actually enters the commercial circuits. Their role is therefore generally underestimated. Development planners and technical staff should however not forget that when forest products are not used or available any more for a given function, they have to be replaced by a substitute that usually must be bought and imported in the area and will compete with food within the limited household budget. Contribution of forest products to directly fulfill basic needs is therefore particularly important for the poorest households. In many areas those will use for example raffia or palm rather than corrugated iron for roofs.
Wild or domesticated plants constitute the main medicinal source in most traditional societies. They offer treatments for the most common ailments and correct micro-nutrient deficiency. Medicinal plants may also contribute to animal health.
By preventing and treating diseases, medicinal plants contribute to the effective biological utilization of food by the individual and therefore to improving nutritional status. Besides this direct contribution, medicinal plants can be bartered or sold and generate income in kind or cash.
- The sale of fuelwood, wild foods, medicines and forest raw materials, and employment in forestry activities bring essential cash income to many households and communities. This income can then be used to purchase food and medicines. In barter economies, wood and non-wood products can also be exchanged for food.
- Generating income alone does not automatically ensure improved household food security and/or enhanced nutrition. If the control of income is not in the hands of those caring for family health and nutrition, or if people are not aware of the importance of this issue or insufficiently informed, there may be no improvement in nutritional well-being. People's knowledge, attitudes and practices will influence food selection (for production and purchasing), preparation and distribution amongst household members. In some cases, when nutrition and health are given low priority, increased income has actually proven detrimental to nutritional well-being.
- Commercialization of forest products may also be detrimental to local people's diets if over-exploitation of forest foods leads to a decrease or disappearance of food supplies or traditional food sources. Increased exploitation of forest products can also modify the time allocation of different family members and affect some activities previously related to household food production, processing and preparation, or child care.
Non-Wood Forest Products (NWFPs) in rural economies
African rain forest
In a Forest Resource Management Project jointly funded by the government of Ghana and the Overseas Development Administration, UK, a study was carried out in eight villages in the Ashanti and Western Regions of Ghana (Tropical Moist Forest) to examine the uses and role of NWFPs in rural economies and the impact of forest degradation. Particular attention was given to the trade of bushmeat, chewsticks, plant medicines, food wrapping leaves and cane products.
In the daily urban market in Kumasi - the biggest in Ghana - more than 90% of traders are women. 700 people are involved on full-time basis in trading NWFPs, among which:
100 leaves traders: Marantaceae leaves are traditionally used for wrapping foods (including fishy, highly preferred to plastic bags and paper and are widely used by street food vendors. The monthly demand for leaves exceeds US$ 47000, providing an important contribution to the household economy of both rural people and urban traders. Leaf gathering in early rains in particular helps the poorest households to tide over the hungry season;
100 medicine traders: these are mostly women. Some men are specialized in fetishes or specific goods;
25 full-time basket traders (sell 1000-5000 baskets a month). US$ 6730 worth of cane are traded per month in Kumasi. 11 enterprises employ 70 people full-time in cane-processing. Children take up weaving during school holidays;
50 full-time traders for smoked bush meat, 15 for fresh meat, for an annual value of US$ 209000 or an approximate amount of 160 tons.
In two of the villages studied, NWFPs constitute the main source of income. In Kwapanin, women gather leaves for food wrapping because the local economy collapsed due to bush fires. In Essamang, women are involved in sponge-making and men are full-time cane basket weavers (1 00 weavers out of a population of 720).
The high demand for cane has resulted in a dwindling supply of canes and community resentment against outsiders looking for cane.
Forests and trees contribute to a more productive environment which in turn leads to the production of more and better crops:
- trees with deep rooting systems extract otherwise inaccessible nutrients from deep in the soil and bring them to the surface via leaf litter. This leaf cover enriches the surface soils for other plant varieties and helps retain moisture. Nitrogen fixing trees also contribute to soil fertility.
- shade provided by trees lowers surface temperatures of soils which is generally beneficial to soil fertility for crop growth and provides protection for animals.
- trees and shrubs planted and managed as wind breaks help control erosion, thereby improving soil quality and leading to increased agricultural production.
- animal fodder collected from forests and trees often enhances meat and dairy production.
In many areas of the world however, traditional agricultural practices are still based on a shift-and-burn approach, which combined with demographic pressure can lead to the degradation of forest resources. With the increase in population and increasing use of natural resources by better-off farmers with access to a higher level of technology, there is a need for increased agriculture production to cover food needs, which could be obtained through intensification of the production system. Poor households however seldom have access to commercial production. The general understanding of the local population is that agricultural land for food production can essentially be gained through cutting down the forest.
Food insecure households are therefore likely to migrate whenever possible to forested areas in order to grow food, which will contribute to deforestation. Governments also think of forest land as "vacant" and, for example, may use it as areas for resettlement. This is likely to remain the case unless economically viable alternatives are made available to poor households.
- Little information is available per se in the literature on the implications of forest management and/or conservation measures on household food security and nutrition of the indigenous populations, although relevant elements can be found in many project reports. Foresters working in government projects are often aware of the lack of cooperation or even hostility of the local population.
- From the above it is clear that preventing the local population from exploiting certain or all forest resources may have serious implications on household food security and nutrition, and particularly on that of the poorest households. Privatization of forested land can for example prevent or reduce access of poor households to some forest foods, leading to a less diversified diet, or to the loss of an essential source of income at a given time of the year.
- Development policies and programmes have traditionally privileged cash cropping on non-forested land, leading to the devaluation of forest lands. Poor people seldom have access to the resulting increased income from cash crops and as a result are the most dependent on the forest for their nutrition.
Non-Wood Forest Products (NWFPs) in rural economies
(Forested areas in India)
In India, NWFPs are widely produced and used in
Madhya Pradesh, Maharastra, Orissa, Bihar, West Bengal, Gujarat, Andhra Pradesh and North Eastern States. Tribal groups have been progressively pushed into marginal areas where agricultural yields are lower and more uncertain and they therefore rely to a high degree on NWFPs which provide employment to 5,7 million persons per year. Almost 50% of the state forest revenues and 80% of the net export earning from forest produce derive from NWFPs.
In the West Midnapore District of Southwest Bengal, productive species can be classified into 7 categories: raw material for commercial sale or processing, subsistence foods and drinks, animal fodder, fuel, timber and fibers for tools and construction purposes and medicine. A number of species have multiple uses: sal tree leaves are used to make plates for religious ceremonies - which provides an income-generating occupation during agricultural lean periods -, fruit are eaten, seeds are sold to produce edible oils, twigs and branches are used for fuel, and stems are used as roofing poles. The fruit of the mahua - Bassia latifolia - tree are used for fermenting wine, the flowers for human and livestock consumption and the seeds for oil pressing. Fruit and seeds products are very seasonal with harvesting periods ranging from 2 to 6 weeks.
Underestimating linkages between household food security and nutrition of the local population and management and conservation of forest resources can lead, on the one hand, to increased malnutrition and food insecurity in the area, which can lead to migration of the local population, and on the other, to a lack of cooperation of the population or even social unrest, which can undermine long-term sustainability of the NFP. When designing and coordinating a NFP, it is therefore essential to have a good understanding:
- of how much and how specific population groups in the country depend on forests and trees for household food security and nutrition, and
- of the impact of changes in forest access on vulnerable households.
The Community Forestry Unit in FAO with assistance from Food and Nutrition division has therefore focused in the last years:
- in understanding better the dependency of people on forest and trees for household food security and nutrition and the impact of changes in access in forest resources;
- on documenting this information as reference for foresters working in similar environments;
- in developing and testing methodological tools enabling foresters to obtain the necessary information when designing and/or evaluating forest management or conservation programmes and projects.
Within this framework, FAO and the Swedish International Development Agency (SIDA) have undertaken in-depth case studies to determine how dependent people are on forests and trees for good nutrition and food security in different geographical and socio-economic contexts. The general objectives of the studies are to understand how, when and in what way different communities and households are dependent on forest and tree products for food security. The methodology used relies partly on the use of participatory appraisals techniques, as a means to gain a better understanding of people's food systems and related perceptions. The aim of these studies is to provide foresters with an in-depth understanding of the main nutrition and food security concerns of households and of their relation with forest management issues as a basis for planning.
Forest Dependency Studies
In Tanzania, two villages were studied, one close to a proposed forest reserve (Mbambakofi) and the other further from the forest, but with villagers still using forest products (Nanguruwe). The most important food obtained from the forest was the Ming'oko root (Dioscorea sp.). Even in Nanguruwe, where the root is not grown, Ming'oko is very important. According to women in the villages, this root is more important than all other domesticated food crops except cassava. It is available and consumed throughout the near. but it is especially important as a coping strategy during the "hungry season." Ming'oko was also a cash crop used by women. Population pressure and the desire to expand cassava farms has led to the deterioration of forests, declining soil fertility and land-shortage. It was also suggested that the availability of forest foods is declining (Missano et al. 1994).
Changing acces
_ As part of the Forests, Trees and People Program me, field studies of the socio-economic aspects of forest dependence in relation to food security were completed in two villages (Bagak and Sungat Bonghang) in West Kalimantan, Indonesia.
_ Using a variety of techniques such as rapid appraisal, semi-structured interviews, mapping and questionnaires the studies explored how socio-cultural, economic, political and environmental changes have affected swidden cultivators' management of forests and trees.
Study results show that villagers in both communities depend on trees. In Bagak, villagers depend on intensively managed tree gardens. Sungai Bongkang villagers, on the other hand, rely on mixed tree gardens and old growth forest. These villagers are directly dependent on forest swiddens for most of the food they consume.
Results also reveal that villagers are dependent on the forest for a significant part of their food and income and are vulnerable to changes in access to the forests. During the past sixty years a variety of changes have reduced the amount of forest land available for collection of forest products and conversion to agriculture.
In both villages, diversity of crop production and income generating opportunities is key in the ability of the villages to ensure food security. This diversity protects against crop failures and shortages due to climatic and political vagaries. Villagers are, however, still vulnerable to government acquisition and privatization of traditionally managed resources. The studies show that the landscape continues to be transformed by logging, plantation development and integration into the world market. Without attention to the affects of these changes, villagers dependent on the forest for their livelihoods may see a growing problem of food insecurity (Peluso, 1993).
In two communes studied in North Vietnam, NacCon and Yen Lap, forest and tree products were found to play an important role in household food security in terms of meal quality, and sustenance during food shortage periods. The dependence on forest and tree products for food security varied by socioeconomic groups. Poor people in both NacCon and Yen Lap depended on forest products for food more than the better off people. The dependency varied by season.
Because of pressure to meet food needs forest land is being destroyed for the production of food and forest products are becoming scarce. This could have a negative effect, if the poor who depend on this resource, do not have access to the cultivated foods (Yen et al. 1994).
