A preliminary historical overview shows how aquaculture is relatively new in Iran, indicating the various production systems in place. Traditionally, supply and demand for fish products has been low. The author describes conditions affecting the mobilization of different inputs and how the different markets operate, especially with regard to the supply of juveniles or fingerlings and feed. A second part exposes and analyzes the institutional structure as it exists and gives suggestions for improving this structure.

"Seabream and seabass rearing in Mediterranean countries has undergone significant development since the 1980s. Ever increasing production has led to a considerable fall in prices. Fierce competition on the Italian market, the main outlet for both species, together with the recession and monetary crisis have worsened the situation. The analysis of the profitability factors of Mediterranean sea farms depends on the economic standards taken into consideration. While certain countries enjoy aid and incentives which even go towards financing various farming costs, other countries have to assume added investment costs, particularly for research or site conditioning. Sea bream and sea bass rearing began in Morocco in 1986. Two rearing systems are currently in practice: an intensive cage system located in the lagoon; and an extensive earthpond system. A case is presented describing intensive gilt-head sea bream and sea bass production in the Nador Lagoon." [from Abstract]

"This paper studies pond fish culture in Western Nigeria and discovered that pond fish culture is an enterprise which is viable. A well-built fish dam is a lifetime investment capable of fully paying back its fixed (investment) cost in 5 to 10 years at the maximum. The estimated cost of N 750 per hectare of small-scale ponds appears to be safe and this could be fully paid back in three years. With a proper management, a 4-ha pond stocked with tilapia is capable of yielding a gross margin of N 380 as against N 850.00 when cultured with carp." [from Abstract]

"The ALCOM Programme’s purpose has been to assist SADC member countries to investigate aspects of aquaculture development, and to test and demonstrate methods and approaches that are socially and economically viable, as well as technically feasible. This is carried out through small pilot projects. The present joint evaluation mission’s purpose is to examine the experience gained and results obtained to date.

The Programme’s results have been prominent, especially with the outputs in extension methodology development and application in eastern Zambia, a country which has been recently identified as having the highest poverty rate in Africa. It indicates the Programme’s potential to contribute to alleviate poverty through food security in the region. For projects to be successful in poverty alleviation, the social and economic objectives need to be balanced; gender issues need to be taken into account; and potential beneficiaries need to be involved in project design and implementation. These are some of the characteristics of ALCOM’s efforts in Zambia. There are good prospects for replicating them in Mozambique and Tanzania". [from Summary of Main Findings and Recommendations]

"This report presents the findings of the Working Group on the Future of ALCOM, which was appointed by the fifth Steering Committee Meeting in February 1992. The Working Group met three times during 1992 and 1993. It gathered information and data on the status and trends in aquaculture in the SADC region, SADC’s and governments’ policies and plans, and donor policies and support to the sector. It analyzed the outlook for aquaculture development (inland fish farming, fisheries and aquaculture on reservoirs, and marine and brackishwater aquaculture) and development needs in a ten-year perspective." [from Introduction]. In addition, macro-economic factors are considered for inland, marine and brackishwater aquaculture.

"This publication presents a number of sketches on aquaculture in southern Africa. The artist, Jonathan King, drew the sketches during a two-month assignment for ALCOM, which included travels to Zambia and Tanzania apart from Zimbabwe. The sketches take up the bulk of this book. Supplementing them is some factual text about aquaculture in the region ". [from Foreword]

This paper evaluates the project for the development of rural aquaculture in Côte d’Ivoire. Although most rural fish farming is carried out in small ponds by smallholders, the tendency towards the development of larger commercial units (1.5 to 5.5 ha) is very strong and should be encouraged. As such farms have had outstanding results, the authors believe that they should be regarded as a model for the development of rural aquaculture in Côte d’Ivoire.

After discussing the country’s aquafarming potential, the authors examine some constraints which affect the availability of production factors (land, capital and labour), and the comparative advantages of Saudi Arabia. Finally, they raise environmental considerations and the economic consequences of the different biotechnical options.

10. Ambali, A.J.D. 1996. The relationship between domestication and genetic diversity of Oreochromis species in Malawi: oreochromis shiranus shiranus (Boulenger) and oreochromis shiranus chilwae (Trewavas). Submitted in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy, Dalhousie University, Halifax, Canada.

"Socio-economic analysis of small-scale farms in Malawi showed that grow-out operations were economically viable primarily because pond inputs comprised recycled on-farm and household waste. The predominance of integrated crop/livestock/fish farming system was a favourable indicator of the possibility of involving farmers in community-based aquaculture biodiversity conservation programmes at farm level. The programmes would benefit from the knowledge and experience farmers had already acquired in conserving indigenous breeds of livestock and crops." [from Abstract]

Aquaculture in Nigeria is analyzed from the perspective of its historical development, incumbent facilities, infrastructures and policies. Nigeria has taken some positive steps toward aquaculture development over the past twenty years. There has been increased awareness and production in fisheries resources, both marine and fresh water. Fish farming has grown steadily. As a result of the growing population, however, Nigerian fisheries production falls well short of the demand for fisheries products and animal proteins.

The problems of aquaculture development in Nigeria are identified and analyzed, culminating in a series of recommendations: "A more aggressive and intensive fish farming and management practice is needed, including the farming of species other than fishes, such as shrimps, crayfish, crabs and maybe oysters. There is enormous demand for fresh and brackishwater crayfish (crawfish) in the Nigerian market, yet there is no record of any attempts to farm them. There is a need for: more comprehensive use of the inland waters for stocking of adequate fish species; the implementation of government aquaculture policies to the grassroots; improvement and enforcement of marine and inland fisheries legislation for conservation purposes; increased budgetary allocation to the fisheries sub-sector and proper monitoring; provision of credits to fish farmers; the utilization of local materials in aquaculture practices; the use of trained practising professionals in project design and supervision; and finally, the mobilization of the community for fisheries development are recommended." [from Conclusions and Recommendations]

This assessment investigates every aspect of the fisheries sector, including: its role in the national economy; its halieutic potential and the degree to which it is exploited; descriptions of different marine and inland fisheries; aquaculture; infrastructures and means of transportation; the export and import of fisheries products; marketing; and questions of institutional support. As far as aquaculture is concerned, it presents the different stages of its development and present status.

13. Anon. 1996a. Evaluation de l’action pour le développement de l’aquaculture au Niger (ADAN) et de la filière aquacole. Rapport final. Ministère de la Coopération, Direction du Développement. 71 p. [SEPIA Conseil, 13, avenue de la Gare, 78181 Saint-Quentin-en-Yvelines, Cedex, France]

This report evaluates the multi-phase aquaculture project on tilapia (Oreochromis niloticus) farming in floating cages on the River Niger. Following the initial phase (1981-1986), during which production techniques were adapted to the Nigerian context and economically-viable extension methods were elaborated, Phase II (1986-1990) enabled the production system to be extended to private operators and the whole vertically-integrated aquaculture venture to be introduced. The major goal for Phase III (1990-1995) was to render every component of the vertically-integrated aquaculture autonomous and economically viable. Each compnent must act according to the rules of the market economy. The Fishermen’s Association of Niger was created for the purpose. It has had to take over from the project vis-à-vis its technical and marketing functions, and as a credit agency and feed producer. Analysis of the technical and economic results at the end of Phase III shows the project’s outstanding achievements, but the economic viability of this aquaculture venture has not been proved.

This document is a synthesis of the seven-volume final report of the Master Plan for Shrimp Farming in Guinea. It contains two sections: first, the Master Plan itself and second, a macro-economic analysis of the development programme proposed by the Master Plan. The studies done for the Master Plan have helped achieve the following: (i) to draw up an inventory of the favourable sites for shrimp farming in coastal areas of Guinea; (ii) to define shrimp production techniques adapted to these sites; (iii) to evaluate the potential for shrimp production in Guinea and determine the types of exploitation; (iv) to develop the marketing strategy; (v) to draw up a 10-year strategy for production development, taking into consideration the environmental, social, economic and institutional constraints; (vi) to perform economic analysis of the various types of exploitation proposed, and study the conditions for their profitability; (vii) to define and assess the institutional and financial measures necessary for developing production and; (viii) to define the action to be taken in the fields of research, training, administrative organization and regulations supporting the development of shrimp farming in Guinea.

The report argues that the climatic and geomorphological conditions of Guinea’s coastal areas are very favourable for shrimp farming and that the European market - a natural outlet for products from the coast of West Africa - offers great development potential for tropical shrimps. Logically, therefore, shrimp farming should develop well in Guinea. The development of shrimp farming has already begun with the creation of the Koba shrimp farm whose performance has been very promising.

In 1988, the Blohorn company (part of the Unilever group) decided to set up an industrial shrimp farm near Grand Lahou, in Côte d’Ivoire. In 1989, before implementing the project at the industrial level (200 ha having been bought for the purpose), Blohorn built a 16-ha pilot farm in order to test the technical and economic parameters of the intensive industrial farming of P. monodon. In view of the very low overall output obtained during the three-year trial exploitation (1989-1992), Blohorn decided not to proceed with the industrial project. The company withdrew from operations despite having invested 2 billion CFA francs in the pilot farm. This report describes and analyzes the Blohorn aquaculture pilot operation within the context of the following: (i) the world evolution of shrimp farming and consumption; (ii) tropical Africa, with reference to aquaculture pilot operations in Madagascar and Guinea; and (iii) the Côte d’Ivoire and the main constraints there to the development of aquaculture.

16. Anon. 1992. Les producteurs privés d’alevins en milieu rural dans la région pilote du Vakinankaratra (Madagascar). Document technique No. 5. Projet promotion de l’aquaculture et privatisation de la production d’alevins. FI/DP/MAG/88/05. [In:van der Hoeven, G.; Leendertse, K. and Townsley, P. (comps.) Socio-economic surveys in fisheries in Africa, an annotated bibliography. FAO Fisheries Circular No. 837 Revision 1.]

This report presents the first analysis of a fry production system in the Vakinankaratra region. The objective of the study was to analyze the production system of the private producers, in order to better understand the diverse obstacles that stop expansion of this promising activity for the villagers.

Mariculture is shown to be the only viable possibility for aquafarming in Libya. Techno-economic alternatives to the fish farming of seabass and seabream are given, while the nutritional and macro-economic consequences of these alternatives are explained.

"With inputs such as artificial feeds, water management and seed production techniques, aquaculture holds immense potential for growth in Egypt. The Government has, therefore, set out to develop this sector. Besides providing additional food supplies, aquaculture will also help improve the socio-economic conditions of the rural population." [Abstract]

Reports are given of studies conducted in southern Africa regarding the integration of aquaculture in rural development, which investigate the following four aspects: socio-cultural, socio-economic, bio-environmental and biotechnical.

"Adverse environmental conditions induced by heavy loading of fish ponds with livestock manure constitute serious pollution and health hazards. Losses in the form of fish mortalities, poor growth performance and the outbreak of pathogenic diseases of fish and man have been observed. The extension of well documented information on the practice of integrated livestock-cum-fish-farming will go a long way in solving these problems." [Abstract]

"Tilapia farming in Africa has a long but fragmented tradition. Pond culture activities became widespread from 1940 to 1960, but subsequently declined. Recently there has been renewed interest. This paper gives a historical account of tilapia farming in Africa and puts forward factors to be considered when planning tilapia culture. Socio-economic, agro-climatic, economic and social constraints to aquaculture development are discussed. Attention is paid to the rationale for the selection of appropriate systems (particularly integrated farming), species, and the degree of intensification. Marketing, resource appraisals, manpower availability and infrastructural support are considered. Climatic data are used to present an indicative tilapia farming zonation of Africa." [Abstract]

"Sudan’s mariculture has perhaps one of the earliest and best documented histories. Mother-of-pearl shell was cultivated as early as 1905 but collapsed in 1923 and is now being reactivated. Fish farming started at the El Shagara Fish Farm in 1951, during which time stocking of ‘haffirs’ was also advocated. Progress has been slow and several activities have subsequently been abandoned. Currently, only 25.2 ha are functional producing 20 t/yr mainly from estate or private farms. In the south, plans are underway to reactivate over 50 ha of ponds. Fisheries administration and research in the norh and south are by two separate, autonomous bodies. Lack of trained personnel, low government priority accorded to fish farming, poor extension and research facilities, are all attributed as the cause of slow progress in aquaculture. On the basis of the environmental, technological and socio-economic conditions, available fish species and existing infrastructure it is concluded that Sudan has a below average scope for a successful aquaculture industry. The greatest opportunity for development exists near the main markets and especially in combination with existing irrigation schemes. Possible zonation is indicated and integrated practices may be more beneficial in remote community areas." [from Abstract]

"Current development policy in Ghana encourages aquaculture and the African Development Bank is embarking on an investment and loan scheme. Any recent irrigat on projects are obliged to allocate 5% of the area to fish culture. The Fisheries Department (FD) is active in extension and the Institute of Aquatic Biology (IAB) as a research base institution is constructing a large experimental farm at Akosombo. In all, the FD has 17 stations of which only 7 to 8 are operational. The National Service Board (NSB) has recently started up a fish culture extension programme as part of their Youth training services.

Ghana has recently entered a major economic reform brought about by a collapse in its major export industry, cocoa. Consequently inflation is high and cost of living has risen but fish still remain a relatively cheap protein source. Demand is high but aquaculture development has not increased to meet that demand. Reasons are numerous such as lack of trained manpower, poor extension support and limited government expenditure, lack of funds or loans, poor in-house data, no successful demonstration and a growing history of failure. FD efforts to help however are hampered by lack of funds for vehicles and support services. Potential for development is enormous wherever water is available, especially in the south which is a warm lowland zone conducive to tilapia production all year round.

Examining all aspects of environmental, technical and socio-economic related factors, Ghana has a favourable chance of success in fish farming but there is need for major extension support." [from Abstract]

"Malawi has a relatively short history of aquaculture research. Over 30 species have been tested, of which nine are exotic and only a few are considered favourable. Even then the use of the best candidate, common carp, has been limited by the fisheries policy preventing its introduction into the Lake Malawi watershed. Tilapias, therefore, are considered to have the best prospect there. The use of cyprinids is also encouraged in the Lower Shire Valley. Trout and freshwater prawns hold promise for commercial development but the local technology is limited.

The main factor determining aquaculture development is the extension service. Altitude appears as the prime criterion for site selection and Malawi has a marked fish culture zonation, the greater part of the country being suitable for carp. The perennial nature of the rainfall implies that highland areas of high rainfall or permanent water bodies are a suitable source of fish-farm water supply. So too are the lakeshore plains, Phalombe-Mulauji plain and medium-altitude areas where water is abundant. Livestock distribution, crop production and irrigation schemes indicate the potential for integrated practices. There is also a considerable surplus of agro-industrial by-products which could be used as fish feeds in ponds.

On the basis of the environmental, technological and socio-economic conditions, it can be concluded that Malawi has an above average chance of success in aquaculture. To this end, an EEC- funded project is about to start. The paradox of the situation is that regions which could benefit most from fish culture are too cold for the favoured tilapia species. As carp is not legally permitted, there is an urgent need to review the approach to upland fish culture techniques." [from Abstract]

"Despite the fact that fish can be eaten during religious fast days, the fishery does not appear to have developed to any significance. With an estimated MSY of 46 000-150 000 t/yr it is possible to achieve a per capita consumption of 0.8-2.5 kg/yr by the turn of the century. Current production is less than 4 000 t/yr, providing a low 0. kg/ind/y consumption. To attain the maximum potential, fishery resources output would have to increase annually by 2 900-9 400 t/yr to the year 2000. However, in order to achieve a balanced nutrition the annual increase would have to be 35 000 t/yr. Fish proteins are therefore urgently needed to improve nutritional budgets. In the short term, the development of the existing fishery resources could alleviate the problem but, in the long term, alternative sources of production such as aquaculture would be necessary.

Although there is a desperate need for animal protein as well as a religious tradition for fish eating, and although there are relatively large fishery resources, Ethiopia has a poor history of fishery development and a virtually non-existant fish farming industry. The Fisheries Department has been more concerned with fish stocking in waterbodies. Fish introductions were initiated as early as 1925, but only recently in 1975 were the first fish ponds built at Sibeta as a Fisheries Research Station. Subsequently, an IFS grant for research was obtained and more recently the stocking of livestock water storage reservoirs has been activated. Tilapia form 80-88.8% of fishery landings and, together with common carp, are the most likely fish farm candidate. But areas suitable to intensive tilapia production are lowlands and semi-desert areas where water resources are usually limited." [from Abstract]

"It appears that the scope for aquaculture development is enormous and that support services and trained manpower are being developed to exploit this potential. There are a number of problems however. Primarily, seed supply is dependent to a large extent on wild-caught fry. Hatcheries for controlled breeding are necessary. Soils in most areas are saline and unstable, requiring special system designs. Established technology is an old tradition and its modernization may represent a conflict of interests alienating extension workers. Most developments are of magnitude never before tested in Egypt and experience is necessary before full protection can be realized. Large, externally-funded projects have recently materialized to help realize the potential.

Considering the environmental, technological and socio-economic conditions, as well as available fish species and existing infrastructure, it can be concluded that aquaculture development in Egypt could develop rapidly to meet demand, provided some caution is exercised. Careful site selection and system choice are essential. Tilapia may not have as productive a potential as mullet due to poor growth in winter, but they are readily available, while common carp remains an unknown entity. Possible zonation is suggested for areas of water availability and new resources are enumerated. The likely trend of aquaculture development seems to favour semi-intensive, polyculture operations integrated with some form of agricultural development." [from Abstract]

"Aquaculture development has a 35-year history in Cameroon and has been assisted by FAO, France, Oxfam, USAID, the US Peace Corps and the World Bank. The Peace Corps Volunteer (PCV) programme was once hailed as a good example of successful fish farm extension. Recent changes in the fisheries administration from the Ministry of Agriculture to the Ministry of Livestock, Fisheries and Animal Industries, have created a complex, confused situation, greatly hampering extension work. There are 38 fish culture stations but all are in need of renovation and improved management. Over 12 000 family ponds were at one stage in operation. Today, between 1 000 and 4 000 only are functional with the assistance of 110 extension agents and 26 PCVs. Production is between

23-200 t/yr, but statistics are confused. A recent survey has set about creating an inventory of fish stations and large-scale fish projects, as well as examining prospects for commercial ventures.

Water resources are good, over 40 000 million m³, however climatically only certain areas are suited to intensive and semi-intensive operations. Food by-products and manures are relatively abundant and there is scope for rural as well as large-scale commercial ventures. The infrastructural and industrial status of Cameroon is sufficiently well-developed to support this. Tilapia is favoured, but carp is more suitable for high altitude areas and shrimp culture is possible. Cool conditions in high plateau regions may restrict production during the winter months.

Therefore, Cameroon has a high rating for success in aquaculture but there remains an urgent need to train middle- to high-cadre staff to better manage stations, revitalize existing units and remotivate extension staff." [from Abstract]

"Aquaculture development in Uganda has a relatively recent history starting with the construction of the Kajansi Experimental Fish Farm. Renowned for its research in pond culture, this station has provided the mainstay to rural extension by distributing over 550 000 fingerlings since 1968. There are 14 fish culture stations but they are all in need of repair. Whereas effective extension services by the early 1960s had established over 11 000 ponds totalling 410 ha and yielding 800 to 900 t/yr, today less than 25% of them are still functional. Poor equipment, lack of transport, economic hardships and prevailing conditions have practically stopped the fingerling distributions. Average pond yields have declined from 400 to 900 kg/ha/yr to less than 200 kg/ha/yr. Although no commercial projects were developed, some rural farms are of a substantial size, implying an interest in semi-commercial production.

There is a need to reactivate government fish culture stations and retrain extension personnel. The present economic situation precludes any commercial development and any rehabilitation of rural fish farms would require external aid. By far the most wide spread farmed fish are Cyprinus carpio (83%) and tilapia. The greater part of Uganda has an altitude/temperature regime unsuitable for all-year-round growth of a warmwater species and carp, therefore, is better adapted for fish farming.

Considering prevailing conditions, available fish species and resource infrastructure, the reactivation of rural fish farming could be possible. Careful species selection is important, tilapia being best suited to lowland areas and common carp to higher zones. But to be effective, priority needs to be given to the rehabilitation of the seed centres and to the re-organization of an effective extension service." [from Abstract]

"Aquaculture has a long history, over 50 years, and Kenya has been responsible for a large portion of pioneer work in Africa. Current plans include a 44 500 t/yr increase by 1988 in fish production through aquaculture, from activities planned by the Fisheries Department, LBDA and TARDA. This sector also receives a substantial contribution from various aid agencies. Plans are underway to train over 800 extensionists by 1988. A new fisheries training institute is under construction and existing research institutes are to take a more active part in development.

Trout and tilapia are the most popular fish, and carp is being encouraged. Other species are still very much at an experimental stage. Seed centres provide limited seed. More are needed and any large-scale unit needs to be self-sufficient. Climatically, appropriate species choice is important for success. Limited areas are suited to intensive operations and most areas are marginal, favouring temperate species. The well-developed national infrastructure, the feed manufacture industry and the availability of food by-products, provide support for semi-intensive/intensive operations with a reasonably good technical manpower pool available in the country to ensure success. Site location and project feasibility are important to economic viability, especially in view of the likely competition between farm-raised fish and fishery products. Intensive units need to be near distribution routes, service centres and have a good market outlet and supply line. Irrigation schemes have a potential for the development of aquaculture, but rural schemes need rehabilitation and existing fish farms require a more practical and dynamic technical assistance. There is a need to implement the available technology to improve production in Kenya." [from Abstract]

"There is particular concern for traditional forms of aquaculture developed in Benin (acadjas and whedos). Fish farmers have been seriously harmed by changes in salinity in Lake Nokoué and by the rising price - due to the deforestation of areas near lagoons - of wood used to install the acadjas. A dam was built on Lake Nokoué to control the water level, and methods to replace acadjas such as net enclosures are currently being experimented. Acadjas provide an annual yield of 2 to 38 t/ha. After construction, average yield increases exponentially with time. Productivity is also directly related to branch density. Whedos are used in flood plains where fish are trapped in artificial trenches when the water level rises and then subsides. An annual production of 1.5 - 2.1 t/ha is possible. Problems with this system are examined, emphasizing the need to conduct in-depth studies in order to better understand how they work and improve construction techniques.

Fish farming in ponds was started back in 1954. Only a few ponds operating with UNDP and EDF aid are still being used. A recent project farming fish in enclosures has been initiated with a new hatchery and a current total of 55 ponds. Production is definitely better than in acadjas, but capital expenditures are much higher and net income from investment is proportionally lower.

The social aspects of introducing new technologies, as well as the current infrastructure situation and the current level of economic development in Benin, suggest that it is necessary to start reintroducing acadjas. Moreover, alternatives to branches must be studied, reforestation programmes implemented, and biological studies done. The development of any other form of aquaculture would mean setting up demonstration units and breeding ponds, as well as training extensionists. The prospects are good for fish farming in ponds in the south and west, but the northeast may be too dry. Studies recently carried out in these areas should make it possible to draw up a development programme." [from Abstract]

"Acadja techniques were brought into Lake Togo, but had to be halted for creation in villages; both these and state-run farms gradually deteriorated and were finally abandoned. In certain cases, this situation can be attributed to the seasonal nature of the water flow, but in general, the ponds were abandoned because public authorities neglected breeding farms and extension services.

The only new development is research on cage farming which was begun in 1981 and is coming to an end. The development of aquafarming was recently reactivated by a non-governmental organization with the help of Peace Corps volunteers. A long-term programme is underway in the wettest part of the western highlands where the Agou-Akaplolo breeding centre is located." [from Abstract]

"A large portion of aquaculture practices in Zimbabwe consists in the stocking of reservoirs with fish. Generally, tilapia are chosen, but up to 31 exotic species have also been introduced. To date, the farming of trout and freshwater prawns (Macrobrachium) has been developed to a commercial level. Trout were the first actively farmed fish, with trials initiated as early as 1910, but the production is limited by the small market demand. Tilapias are considered more generally acceptable. There are five fishery stations with limited research and extension facilities, managed by the Branch of Aquatic Ecology of the Department of National Parks and Wildlife Management. They serve to provide farmers with fish juveniles for dam stocking.

Private investors have shown an increasing interest in commercial fish farming, and a large number of pliot projects has been initiated. However, lack of technical expertise has resulted in poor site selection, inappropriate technology, and lack of genetic control. It has led to a poor history of failures. The long isolation of Zimbabwe before independence has aggravated the situation, depriving the country of scientific and technical exchanges. The attitude that fish culture was only a sideline to a major farming activity has also hampered development. Current national programmes are underway to hire technical expertise, establish demonstration centres and build an aquaculture institute for training, research and seed supply. Progress, however, has been slow for lack of funding.

Considering the environmental, technological and socio-economical conditions, the available fish species and the existing infrastructure, it is concluded that aquaculture development has a favourable chance of success in Zimbabwe. Possible zonation is indicated, and it is felt that where sites are available near water, in the lowveld areas, tilapia farming is possible both at subsistence and commercial levels. Unfortunately, such areas tend to be dry and remote, so that fish farms could be established in small isolated areas only." [from Abstract]

"Aquaculture has a long history in Liberia, with early projects started in the early 1950s. However, recent technical assistance in 1979 helped reactivate village ponds. Over 300 ponds are now in operation, producing about 4.5 t in 1982. The Fisheries Division of the Ministry of Agriculture operates a research station at Suakoko, which function as seed and demonstration centre. Activities have been hampered by lack of funds and understaffing so that extension effort is low. Similarly training is limited to the input by Peace Corps Volunteers and each of them has trained a counterpart extension aide. Generally small ponds are built and stocked with tilapia (especially O. niloticus), feeding with rice bran, composted rice stalk greens and other vegetable wastes. A large-scale fish farm was started in 1979 but was soon abandoned due to operational difficulties.

Liberia has made slow progress in fish culture development. There is an ever increasing need to expand activities. Water resources are abundant and if only 10% of existing rice paddies were put to integrated use, nearly 5 000 t/yr of fish could be produced. Small-scale projects are favoured but institutional development is in need of revitalization, with an emphasis on the training of extension agents as well as on organized supporting services and pilot demonstrations." [from Abstract]

"The main fish landings are coastal and isolated inland floodplains. At the source, fish fetch a low price and are sold fresh. Distant markets receive processed fish at nearly five times the landed price due to the cost of transportation and handling. Consequently, inland populations receive proportionately less fish protein and these areas are likely to benefit most from aquaculture projects.

Aquaculture endeavours to date have included a 10-year oyster culture research programme and a number of integrated agricultural development projects administered by the Fisheries Division of the Ministry of Natural Resources, with foreign assistance.

To date over 149 ponds have been built through the extension services of 11 extension agents and seven US volunteers. Ponds are generally integrated into existing rice-paddy schemes and wastes from rice production are used as fish feed. A fish culture station exists at Makali, where seeds and demonstrations are provided. O. niloticus is the sole fish farm candidate attaining yields of 2 500 kg/ha/year. National production amounts only to 3-4 t/year.

Aquaculture has only recently been introduced to Sierra Leone and has made slow but favourable progress. Prospects are good for further development. Water resources are abundant and even if 10% of existing rice paddies were used, over 8 000 t/year fish production could be possible. The socio-economic and infrastructural conditions limit intensive large-scale developments, but small-scale projects are favoured. Climatic conditions are ideal, with perhaps a need for caution due to possible cold conditions in the north creating a loss in production for not more than 1-2 months. There is however, an urgent need to train further extension agents. Aspects of pond nutrition also need attention." [from Abstract]

"Aquaculture was first introduced in 1949. Fish farming mainly developed in rural fish ponds and in farm dams. Statistics suggest that between 6 000 and 10 000 ponds were built, of which only 10% are still currently functional. Most of these ponds are located in the Ruvuma and Mbeya regions. Recently there has been interest shown in commercial large-scale farms for shrimp or tilapia, but other than a trout farm at Ngare Sera Mt no such development has taken place. The general interest, therefore, has been in tilapia and the Department of Fisheries, Ministry of Lands, Natural Resources and Tourism has established about 15 stations with 58 ponds as seed and demonstration centres. A number of these stations have been recently rehabilitated under a FAO/UNDP Programme. The Fisheries Department has a limited budget for aquaculture and transport is problematic. Most stations have no offices and regional administrators operate out of district headquarters too far removed from the stations to ensure proper administration. Records of activities are therefore poor and there is an urgent need to obtain a census of the status of these stations.

The potential of a site greatly depends on an adequate water supply. In Tanzania, areas of high water surplus border the most productive fishery zones. Major rivers offer permanent water but because of the seasonality of the rainfall, most areas experience a dry season during which small streams may dry up. The most important feature, however, is temperature zonation which indicates that most of Tanzania is too cool for all year production of tilapia. Carp therefore might be favoured. Considering all aspects of environmental, technical and socio-economic factors it is concluded that aquaculture development has a favourable chance of success, but major extension support is needed." [from Abstract]

"The FAO Regional Office in Accra, Ghana, recently initiated a survey of aquaculture development in the region. The directory generated for Zimbabwe lists 57 commercial fish farmers. The results suggests that there is a recent resurgence of interest in large-scale aquaculture in Zimbabwe." [From Foreword]

"This document is directed to aquaculture development specialists, coastal resource use planners and government officials involved and interested in the planning and management of coastal aquaculture development within the wider context of resource use in coastal areas. It is intended to serve in the promotion of environmental management of coastal aquaculture. Guidelines are given for improved environmental management of coastal aquaculture based on an overview of selected published experiences and concepts. Potential adverse environmental effects of and on coastal aquaculture practices are addressed with consideration of the main socio-economic and bio-physical factors. Methodologies are presented for the assessment and monitoring of environmental hazards and impacts of coastal aquaculture. Selected environmental management options are described for application both at the policy level and farm level." [from Abstract]

The author describes regional characteristics in detail and focuses on the generally low consumption of fish products in two groups of countries: (i) Tunisia, Egypt and Morocco, with an annual per capita consumption between 7.5 and 9.5 kg; (ii) Algeria and Libya, with consumption at less than 4 kg/yr. A general presentation of fish and aquaculture products on the market is followed by an evaluation of the economic development of fish products and an estimation of the overall market for the year 2010. The author emphasizes the issue of population growth, and thus the economic and nutritional importance of an adequately developed fishing sector and of an aquaculture sector intended for export, as well as for the domestic market.

The author details intervention policies pertaining to this sector and the role which can be played by the General Fisheries Council for the Mediterranean (GFCM) and, especially, the Mediterranean Regional Aquaculture Programme (MEDRAP) in the elaboration of such policies. He advocates legislation favourable to the private sector. Finally, there is mention of the need for integrated coastal facilities to monitor pollution risks and the role of the GFCM in these matters.

The author describes regional characteristics in detail, emphasizing that supply and demand is generally weak even though the Gulf States (the United Arab Emirates, Bahrain, Oman, Qatar) have a per capita consumption averaging 20 kg/yr. A general presentation of fish and aquaculture products on the market is followed by an evaluation of the economic development of fish products and an estimation of the overall market for the year 2010.

An estimation of consumption in 2010 is followed by considerations regarding food security, stressing the role of aquaculture in this area: the author underscores the dangers of massive fish meal use for aquaculture export purposes. The author details intervention policies pertaining to this sector, especially as it concerns aquaculture. He recommends legislation favourable to the private sector and to foreign investment, especially for aquaculture, as a means of encouraging the transfer of aquaculture technology.

Finally, mention is made of the need for integrated coastal facilities to monitor the risks of pollution and eutrophication linked among other things to fish farming in cages. In order to encourage technology transfer, regional cooperation in training is recommended. In the area of international trade, the positive work of the Centre for Marketing Information and Advisory Services in the Arab Region (INFOSAMAK) is highlighted.

"In Lake Kariba, Zimbabwe, small-scale pond farming and the experimental cage-culture of tilapia fishes have been running for some years and there are now plans for large-scale aquaculture. As a basis for deciding on how aquaculture could be developed to improve the chances for sustainable resource use and long-term maximized fish production in the lake, we compare the potential ecological life-support demand of two alternative aquaculture methods. First, the ecological and resource demand, expressed in industrial and solar energy units, respectively, were estimated for semi-intensive pond farming and intensive cage farming. Next, the ecosystem areas appropriated by the two farms for production of feed, oxygen and phosphorous assimilation were estimated." [from Abstract]

A report is given of the seminar which was represented by the following countries: Morocco, Algeria, Greece, Cyprus, Tunisia, Turkey, Yugoslavia, Egypt, Syria and Malta. After a general overview of aquaculture in each of these countries, the socio-economic aspects are described and the marketing of aquaculture products examined.

This paper presents the characteristics and issues of the fisheries in Sub-Saharan Africa and analyzes the present trends in supply and demand and anticipated developments for fish and fish products in the region. The author argues that the aquaculture sector in the region is globally better geared than capture fisheries to respond, in the medium term, to important increases in demand for fish. This will be supported by the rarefaction of additional supply from capture fisheries, constrained imports and the likely rise of fish prices in the region.

Aquaculture is still a marginal activity in the Congo despite the major efforts that have been undertaken to develop it. Bearing in mind the new macro-economic orientations, policy must be adapted for the development of fisheries and fish farming. Towards such an end, the institutional and administrative framework of the fisheries sector is presented, strategies are put forward for development within the national sector plan, and policy-making tools are identified.

This article first focuses on the Algerian Aquaculture Association, set up in 1993, which brings together private promoters with an interest in aquaculture. Secondly, it evaluates the potentialities of freshwater mariculture and pisciculture. Thirdly, it retraces the main lines of the development plan (1995-2005), emphasizing objectives and concrete projects. Finally, it presents the development plan’s province-by-province proposals for action in favour of aquaculture.

This paper describes and evaluates an oyster culture project in Sierra Leone. It discusses the possible factors that prevented the non-implementation of the extension phase of the project. It also presents a financial and socio-economic analysis of the project.

Pisciculture was first introduced into the Central African Republic in the 1950s. After a long implementation phase, marked by the relative failure of a number of different projects, it is now a fully recognized activity in Central African society, currently undergoing progressive expansion. At present, output is about 300 t/yr. Two chief forms of pisciculture can be differentiated according to the degree of intensive farming and professionalization: subsistence fish farming in rural areas and small-scale commercial fishfarming in peri-urban areas. However, fish farming activity still faces problems of a social and economic order. Development policy is being formulated for the sector in the Central African Republic. As a starting point, the institutional, administrative, and planning frameworks are being defined along with government policy tools.

Aquaculture has not yet arrived at a significant stage of development in Burkina Faso, in spite of the efforts that have been undertaken to extend the farming of tilapia. Stocking small reservoirs as a means of increasing their natural productivity is interesting for rural areas. The paper identifies the administration and services as well as the planning framework and policy tools needed for the fisheries sector, and suggests some strategic approaches for the sector’s development.

"This document describes the status of inland capture fisheries and aquaculture sector in Ethiopia as of mid-1993. Current production, from the main lakes, is estimated to be only at about 20% of the potential. The sector appears to be in an evolutive phase following price liberalization and the end of the monopolistic situation which the State-owned fish marketing corporation had until recently. Individual fishermen are now allowed to operate outside the framework of cooperatives. Over recent years, fish demand has grown significantly and is forecasted to be at least the double of present production by the year 2000. However, important efforts are required to upgrade fishing technologies, to improve infrastructure support such as feeder roads and market sheds, and to consolidate the institutional and legal framework for servicing the development of the industry." [Abstract]

"The author, a research scientist with the International Centre for Living Aquatic Resources Management (ICLARM) in Malawi, argues that integrated aquaculture can build up the productive capacity of smallholder farmers, feed people and protect the environment in southern Africa." [from Foreword]

"This volume contains brief papers which review the socio-economic and biophysical environment in which integrated aquaculture must function in Sub-Saharan Africa; presentations of experiences from research and the field, including both biotechnical and anthropological studies; and a summary of discussions and conclusions about integrated aquaculture’s potential role in African rural development. It was concluded that the potential for integrated resource management to improve economic and ecological sustainability of smallholding farming systems is substantial. However, further research is needed to clarify its role and limits". [Abstract]

"This volume reports the findings of the ICLARM-BMZ/GTZ Africa Aquaculture Project (1986-1994). The project studied smallholder farming systems and developed integrated aquaculture technologies in collaboration with the Malawian Department of Fisheries, the University of Malawi and the Ministry of Research and Environmental Affairs. The project began with a comprehensive survey of the ecological and socio-economic context in which Malawian smallholding farmers must earn their living. The majority of the enterprises on these farms are resource-limited and use, for the most part, traditional farming methods which are increasingly unproductive and inadequate in light of expanding population pressure. One important consequence of the failure of traditional agriculture to meet human needs is environmental degradation associated with bringing marginal land into agriculture, and the overexploitation of fragile ecosystems.

To ameliorate this situation, technologies which could take advantage of existing on-farm resources to improve productivity and environmental sustainability were developed in on-station trials. However, adoption of these technologies by smallholders using the existing extension approach and infrastructure was less than anticipated. The project found that constraints to adoption were best dealt with by letting the farmers decide what technology they would like to use, regardless of its productivity relative to other technologies. In other words, the socio-economic constraints to adoption of aquaculture (e.g., lack of investment capital and social leveling mechanisms) are exacerbated when extension agents and scientists attempt to impose technology on farmers. To determine how farming system evolved as a result of the adoption of fish farming, methods of participatory rural appraisal were adapted for use by researchers." [from Abstract]

World aquaculture is booming. Between 1984 and 1991, production underwent a steady annual growth of 8 %, with rises of 10 to 16 million t/yr. Estimates suggest that the sector’s production will be about 20 million t/yr in the year 2000 and 60 million t/yr by the year 2025. Meanwhile, it is now almost certain that world fishery catches during the same period will not rise beyond (at the most) between 95 and 100 million t/yr. The aquaculture sector is likely to have a crucial global role in human food supplies. But the overall growth in aquaculture production of the last decade masks strong regional disparities. If Asia and Latin America underwent a major increase in production, African development remained very limited.

This document aims to show how the new world economic order opens up favourable opportunities for the emergence of aquacultural activity in Africa in the near future. If the recent development of industrial shrimp farming in Asia and Latin America has proved advantageous for their respective economies, it also shows that this development might not be sustainable if it is anarchical and at the expense of the Environment. Analysis of this example helps to produce the recommendations that should be followed for developing sustainable Aquaculture in Africa.

"The study was carried out in the Zomba and Mwanza districts of southern Malawi between July and September 1991. A random sample of 150 fish farmers was selected, representing 35% of the total fish farming population of these areas. Quantitative and qualitative socio-economic data were collected with a questionnaire administered by local extension agents. Gross margins and the return to labour were used to assess the viability of fish farming operations." [Methodology]

"Although protein intake is adequate for the urban population and the other high income groups, there is still serious protein deficiency in the diets of the rural poor. Current fish production provides about 200 g/ind/year. To sustain this consumption level and provide optimum daily fish protein requirement, an annual production of between 230-11 000 t will be required by the year 2000. The current fish production is about 150 t and the potential fish production from inland waters is estimated to be 200 t. Therefore, any increase in fish production will have to come from aquaculture.

Swaziland’s climate is favourable for fish farming, ranging from warm water fish in the lowveld to cold water fish in the upper reaches of the highveld. A possible fish farming zonation is proposed. The current fish culture practice concentrates on the production of tilapia, common carp and catfish in small family ponds for subsistence.

However, a number of factors limit the rate of aquaculture development in Swaziland. Among them are the lack of trained manpower, the lack of aquaculture policy and development plan, and an inadequate infrastructure particularly for fish seed production.

Swaziland has a potential for aquaculture development especially in the lowveld in integration with irrigation schemes. Given the climatic conditions, the development of infrastructure and the current nutritional and socio-economic situation, aquaculture has a high chance of success in the country.

However, Swaziland will need long-term financial and technical assistance if aquaculture is to succeed." [from Abstract]

This paper discusses one aspect of fish farming: the inherent risk in investing human capital to build and manage the pond. A case study from East Kalimantan, Indonesia, is presented to illustrate what is meant by human capital investment. The author believes that two problem areas must be addressed in order to help introduce aquaculture to African smallholders. Firstly, labour input requirements need to be carefully researched and methods elucidated to reduce them. Secondly, novel methods need to be developed to minimize risk.

"This document assembles (in their original languages) the twelve national reviews (Cameroon, Central African Republic, Congo, Côte d’Ivoire, Kenya, Madagascar, Malawi, Nigeria, Rwanda, Tanzania, Zambia, Zimbabwe) prepared by senior aquaculturists as part of the FAO/SIFR Study on Aquaculture Development and Research in Sub-Saharan Africa. In each of these reviews, the aquaculture development and research sectors are first characterized in detail. Then, on the basis of this information, short- and medium-term national priorities are identified for each of these two sectors." [Abstract]

"A workshop on aquaculture planning in the Southern African Development Coordination Conference (SADCC) countries was organized in Lusaka, Zambia, from 7 to 11 October 1985. During nine technical sessions the major factors related to aquaculture planning were reviewed and discussed. These included socio-economic aspects, cultural systems, training and extension, the private versus public sector and regional cooperation. A series of specific recommendations were agreed upon by the participants." [Abstract]

"This document is based on twelve national reports of the most important aquaculture countries in Sub-Saharan Africa. It analyses the present situation of aquaculture countries in Africa in terms of historical development, public-sector involvement, support activities for development of the sub-sector and planning experiences, and briefly reviews the external assistance received for development projects. The research sub-sector is then analyzed to verify the correspondence between its structure, programmes and plans and the identified needs for aquaculture development. Through a logical process for priority-ranking and correspondence with the development objectives, an indicative action plan emerges that includes nine regional programmes which would assist in fostering aquaculture development in the short and medium term through support to research. These research programmes, involving centres of the five agro-ecological regions of Sub-Saharan Africa working as activity networks, include a project for aquaculture information centres in support of all other eight proposals.

Other programmes include those for socio-economics, aquaculture production indicators, pond fertilization and feeding strategies, fish broodstock improvement and management, small water bodies fisheries’ enhancement, aquaculture in irrigation shemes, indigenous fish culture and marine aquaculture." [Abstract]

"The orientation of local fish farming techniques in the west of Côte d’Ivoire is explored in detail. Local suburban fishfarmers reveal a real ability to put into use a complex fish farming technicality and at the same time an inability to advance towards more ‘intensive’ techniques (referring to financial investment). Initially, these fish farmers adopted a single sex breeding technique with Oreochromis niloticus associated to a predator and also have their own fry production. The inputs are rice bran and an organic fertilizer (breeding and slaughterhouse wastes). The fish farmers sell Oreochromis when they reach the average weight of 200 g. Net yields of Oreochromis often exceed 4 t/ha/yr. The fish farmers have also adopted the polyculture with Heterotis niloticus and Heterobranchus isopterus. Frequently the yields reached for these species are respectively found between 0.8 and 1.2 t/ha/yr and 0.6 and 0.8 t/ ha/yr. This polyculture increases the production value. Fry production exceeds the farmer’s needs for Heterotis, but they still depend on the catch in open surrounding water for Heterobranchu.. The choice of these techniques used by the local fish farmers leads towards a greater use of labour (abundant factor) instead of capital (scarse factor) on their fish farming units. The fish farmers do not worry about the present economic crisis because the selling price depends essentially on how they pay their work, and fish meat is still the most accessible protein. To conclude, paths taken by the fish farmers do not lead either to an extensification or an intensification, but to an extensification of the capital and an intensification of the labour by area used. The fish farming evolution can only be understood if we integrate all the farming system’s evolution of the fish farmers concerned." [from Abstract]

These conference proceedings contain abstracts on the social, cultural, bio-economic and technical basis of aquaculture research and development. Relevant articles include: ‘An Economic Analysis of Fish Farming in Malawi’, ‘Socio-economic Constraints to Fish Farming Integration and Impediments to the Acceptability of Fish Cultured in Manured Ponds in Malawi: the Cases of the Dedza Hills and Lilongwe Northeast Rural Development Projects’, and ‘Socio-demographic and Socio-economic Profiles of Fish Farmers in the West and Northwest Provinces of the Republic of Cameroon’.

"In Zaire, gross national product per capita is extremely low, the country is grappling with heavy financial difficulties and a negative balance of trade. The Government’s general development plan calls for developing the agricultural, forestry, farming, fishing, and fish-farming sectors, in order to diversify revenues and ensure a self-sufficient food base. The country has great potential in terms of inland fishing, but sea fishing is limited by a narrow coastline. Currently, the population’s needs in terms of animal proteins are far from being met. The Government is thus seeking technical aid to help it further increase its inland fishing catch.

At present, fish farming only produces a few hundred tonnes of fish per year, whereas its potential is much higher. Though hard to judge, it is estimated at 10 000 to 20 000 t/yr in the middle term in priority zones, and 30 000 t for the whole country. One advantage of fish farming is that it can produce fish in remote areas, and the Government thus wishes to develop it through projects and joint technical assistance programmes." [from Abstract]

"The animal protein needs of the people can be satisfied only if agricultural production is stepped up and fish farming integrated into the agricultural development plan. Fish farming, initiated long ago, remained marginal, but has now been targeted by a five-year national fish-farming project: fish farms are being rehabilitated and an intensive extension campaign has been launched with positive results. A follow-up to this project would be desirable. Despite considerable limitations, aquaculture through rural fish farms, fish culture in cages and enclosures, rice-fish culture, etc., can significantly increase the country’s fish protein supply." [from Abstract]

"The animal protein needs of the people can be satisfied only if agricultural production is stepped up and fish farming integrated into the agricultural development plan. Fish farming, initiated long ago, remained marginal, but has now been targeted by a five-year national fish-farming project: fish farms are being rehabilitated and an intensive extension campaign has been launched with positive results. A follow-up to this project would be desirable. Despite considerable limitations, aquaculture through rural fish farms, fish culture in cages and enclosures, rice-fish culture, etc., can significantly increase the country’s fish protein supply." [from Abstract]

"In order to offset losses in inland fishing, the Government’s development plan provides for a series of measures to support both this sector, as well as aquaculture. As regards the latter, this plan seeks to take advantage of all available possibilities: irrigated zones and wetlands for setting up pond sites; stocking of ponds and lakes; utilization of cages and enclosures; and shrimp and oyster farming. Aquaculture’s benefits will also enable the country to reduce careless hunting practices and better control the ‘helter-skelter’ spread of livestock farming which puts a severe strain on an ecosystem already seriously threatened by crop farming.

The Government has decided to boost shrimp culture by setting up a pilot project in the Basse-Casamane area, as well as to encourage oyster culture and the stocking of ponds and lakes. A programme of semi-intensive commercial fish farming has been started in the Senegal River Valley and financing is being sought for a series of other projects in the aqua farming sector. In addition, there are plans to revive old fish farms in the Senegal River Valley. These facilities include the Richard Toll fishery, several demonstration ponds and about twenty community ponds. It is clear that the potential of aqua farming in Senegal is handicapped by limited rainfall, human and budgetary resources. However, irrigated zones can be used to combine fish culture with rice-fish culture, while ponds and lakes can be suitably adapted to fish-farm stocking and to the use of cages and enclosures; shrimp and oyster farming also offer significant possibilities.

In order to make up for existing limitations, the Government needs to strengthen its Department of Fish-Culture, by providing a well-trained staff with adequate funds so they can efficiently and competently oversee the development of the country’s aquafarming potential, in conjunction with a viable technical assistance." [from Abstract]

"In order to offset losses sustained by the fishing sector, the Government wants to take advantage of all the aqua farming possibilities available to the country: irrigated zones and wetlands for setting up pond sites; stocking and making water bodies (ponds, dams and reservoirs) productive; and the use of cages and enclosures, etc. Fish farming, initiated a decade ago with the construction of a fishery and the setting up of 150 ponds in rural areas, is currently covered by a five-year project.

There is significant aqua farming potential, despite considerable limitations, in the different water bodies found in Mali; production is possible given the appropriate legislation, restocking procedures, and the use of cages and enclosures. In irrigated zones, ponds can be set up and more intensive fish farming be done in combination with animal farms and rice-fish culture. The extension of fish farming and the rationalization of fishing practices will only be successful if, from the outset, breeding ponds (both the old and new ones planned) are rapidly functional and if the Fishery Department is used to good effect, equipped with a well-trained staff and an adequate budget." [from Abstract]

"Fish farming, initiated long ago, has continued to be marginal. Efforts are now being made to revive it, for example by introducing fish culture into irrigated zones and setting up similar, but larger operations in the Sourou Valley.

Significant aqua farming potential exists, despite considerable limitations, in Burkina Faso’s different water bodies through the use of restocking, enclosures and cages. In irrigated zones, ponds can be set up and intensive fish farming achieved in combination with animal farms and rice-fish culture. Industrial fish farming is no longer practised, but ought to be taken up experimentally and on a limited scale. Any fish-farming extension plan must, from the outset, see to it that the Fish-Farming Division is used to good effect, and that breeding and research networks are consolidated, in order to have a sufficient supply of young fish and resolve the problems that hinder fish-farming development." [from Abstract]

"The development of aquaculture, estimated at 540 t/yr, has practically come to a halt. Potential is limited primarily because the country is thickly forested (85%) and sparsely populated. In the past, however, fish farming had attained a significant level of development with 11 fisheries and

2 000 private ponds. It then dropped to a very low level, and a UNDP/FAO regional project re-stimulated development from 1968 to 1972; carrying out research, rehabilitating fish farms and training personnel. But it turned out to be too short, and after the technical assistants left, fish farming development fell back to its former level. Since 1972, various FAO missions have given rise to project proposals and a master plan, but so far nothing concrete has come of them.

New studies will hopefully result in the application of recommendations made by previous missions: training at all levels in both fishing and fish-farming practices, establishment of a master plan for the fishing sector with optimal use of all fishing potentialities, reinitiation of fish farming in fisheries and rural areas through renewed extension programmes." [from Abstract]

"For self-sufficient food security, the country has good potential for sea fishing, inland fishing and fish farming. As a means of further increasing fish production and reducing imports, small-scale sea fishing and inland fishing are both included in development projects.

Currently, fish farming annually produces only a few dozen tonnes out of a potential yield which may be estimated at more than 2 000 t/yr. Since it has the advantage of being able to produce fish in areas far removed from supply markets, and since results have been encouraging, the Government would like to step up this practice. At present, fish farms are small-scale or family-run rural operations. A pilot project for industrial pisciculture has been set up." [from Abstract]

"In recent years, intensive action has been taken in favour of aquaculture. Yet, while yield potential is estimated at 3 600 t/yr of fresh fish, current production stands at 360 t.

After a period of highs and lows, fish farming was promoted in 1968 by an UNDP/FAO regional project, and this was followed by three UNDP/FAO national projects. These projects supported research and the subsequent application of the results of this research through intensive extension work; they also supported the rehabilitation of fish farms. To ensure the continuation of fish farming, the last project in 1980, a global project, had the task of making the three main fisheries self-financing, of integrating all aquaculture activities and of organizing the Department of Fish Farming.

This department, now staffed by personnel trained during these projects, has been operating in the field since 1984 through the semi-state-controlled Bangui-Laandjia Fish Farming Centre. The Centre, through extension and in conjunction with two fisheries in Bouar and Bambari, oversees 8 500 fish-farmers working almost 10 000 ponds which comprise a total surface area of 127 ha, and every available possibility is put to use.

The development of aquaculture in the Central African Republic has been consistent with the means at its disposal. However, if fish farming - as well as fishing - is to reach its full potential, there will have to be an increase in the purchasing power of the population in order to create a market for products." [from Abstract]

"A three-member ALCOM mission visited Zambia during August-October 1989, to study and promote the integration of fish farming into the traditional farm household system in Luapula province. The mission spent six weeks in Luapula Province and two weeks in Lusaka. Information was gathered on household resources and production systems. Political, economic and socio-economic data were also collected." [from Summary]

"A new branch of agro-business, fresh water and marine aquaculture started a worldwide expansion from the 1960s. Specific technologies were integrated with different socio-economic systems. Now, in a growing process, aquaculture is building up a new seashore landscape and opening the way for more valuable use of inland water.

From catching spores, spats, baby shrimps and fry in their natural environment water farming needs first a safe supply of hatchery and nursery manmade seeds. The specific biology of water organisms must be taken in account not only for reproduction, but also for nutrition and pathology. High technologies and water environment control need heavy public investment and plenty of private funding. The average capital for starting a penaeid shrimp, catfish or salmon farm is $US 1 to 2 million. Taiwan (P.C.) and East Asian countries are pushing intensive farming for fishes and crustaceans. In Japan, aquaculture takes into account a very strong market and a long history of integrated coastal life through the ‘kumiai’ system. The present production is of a very high standard, but future ‘marinovation’ will use marine farming as a support for a multipurpose socio-economic progressive organization.

Looking now to the status and trends of aquaculture the present ‘Blue Revolution’, it is stronger and deeper than the former agricultural ‘Green Revolution’." [from Abstract]

"For nearly forty years, fish farming and/or rice-fish farming development projects have been proceeding in rural Madagascar, without success. Via an analysis of the workings of agrarian and production systems, this study highlights a certain number of structural obstacles that have hindered the models for rice-fish farming proposed so far. The first two obstacles are the pressure on land and the pre-eminence of rice among production systems, accounting for the smallness and fragmentation of Malagasy farms, on which the vast majority of country people can now only just manage to survive. As a result, people often abandon agriculture for other, more lucrative, activities external to the family-run farm. More specifically, the development of rice-fish farming in rural areas is handicapped by problems over the social management of water, which complicate its technical control, as well as market-related problems (input supplies, openings, prices). Once the socio-economic obstacles have been exposed, rice-fish farming models that take them into account are proposed (e.g., simply putting in rice paddies or reservoirs) and their limits are discussed. A complementary study of the urban environment in Fianarantsoa confirms the advantages of this type of environment for the development of rice-fish culture and suggests that a fish farming model might be devised linking several different species of fish." [from Abstract]

Utilizing the agrarian and production system approach, this report attempts to analyze the status and role that pisciculture could play in the agriculture of the peri-urban lowlands of Daloa town, Côte d’Ivoire. First, it describes the Daloa peri-urban lowlands within the national context, identifying the physical, social and economic environment and providing some historical references. It then characterizes the production systems and analyzes them by type, according to their main activity: rice cultivation, vegetable crops or fish farming. Finally, the report examines the development of pisciculture within this broad context, assessing various ways in which it can be integrated into the existing production systems.

"The aquaculture industry is expanding very rapidly in Egypt. About 100 000 feddans (42 000 ha) are currently in use. The production of farmed fish has leapt from 15 000 t in 1984 to 53 000 t in 1994, a rise of 253 %. Special attention has been given to brackishwater and marine fish farming. As a result, the production of these fishes was increased from 1 500 to 9 700 t during the period 1984-1992, a rise of 647 %. The main problems facing the aquaculture industry in Egypt are: seed production, shortage of artificial feed and lack of technical experience and extension services. These problems and the solutions adopted by the Egyptian Government are discussed." [Abstract]

"A survey of 55 fish farmers in Rwanda provided data to analyze the economics of fish production in a subsistence agricultural economy. Survey results demonstrated that fish are primarily a cash crop and secondarily a source of food for the family.

Net cash returns to labour per 100 m² varied from FRW 510 at high altitudes to FRW 1308 at low altitudes and represented approximately 7% and 29%, respectively, of average annual income on high- and low-altitude farms. Labour was the primary resource utilized in fish farming and yielded cash returns that were competitive with daily wage rates, even though realistic employment opportunities were scarce. Income from fish farming represented a significant proportion of total cash income in addition to its food value for the household." [Abstract]

This report presents an overview of aquaculture production, by production environment, over the last ten years. A detailed survey done in 1993 is presented and is followed by a description of aquaculture potential. Stress is laid upon the problems of hatching and marketing: aquaculture production on a medium-term basis could offer an alternative to offset the dramatic decrease in Black Sea pelagic catches.

The author describes the efforts made in the field of research and development due to the creation and enhancement of a number of institutions. The necessity of introducing new aquaculture technologies, as well as the related problems, is emphasized. Finally, the long delays in licensing procedures for aquaculture ventures, the overly high density of cage farm holdings, the huge number of unlicensed farms, and the conflicts between aquaculture activities and tourism are given as the specific constraints for aquaculture development in Turkey.

This report focuses on seabass and seabream aquaculture and presents an overview of the quantity and value of output over the past ten years. Comparison is made with the production of banded bream, salmon and shrimp.

Farm locations per region and their output capacity figures are given in an introduction with reflections on credit programmes for production and commercialization. The conditions for receiving a loan involve the following steps: one must have prior approval from the Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Affairs (MARA); 40% of equity must be paid by the investor; collateral security must be deposited at the Bank; and fixed assets must be insured.

After describing the various technologies for seabass and seabream aquaculture, the report discusses the constraints faced by small-scale commercial holdings wishing to market their products. The author ends with a focus on the limitations linked to mobilizing the factors of production for hatcheries and grow-out farms.

"This study examines the resource-use efficiency in fish farming in the Cross River and Ondo States of Nigeria. The paper has the major objectives of estimating input-output relationships in fish farming, estimating the elasticity production and returns to scale, and determining the optimum resource use level in the study areas.

A cross-sectional study of 47 fish farms were made. The study showed that resources were efficiently utilized in fish farms in the two states. The computed elasticity of production showed that the fish farmers were operating in Stage II of the production process, which is the rational zone of production. It was also found that the farms were enjoying increasing returns to scale. The study goes further to identify shortage of fingerlings, scarcity of feeds and inadequate training as the major problems hindering the development of fish farms in the two states." [Abstract]

"The sustainable development of aquaculture in Morocco might require a National Master Plan. It would help to develop many legislative features and control the introduction of new, non-indigenous species that may upset the balance in the environment. Morocco may also need specialized programmes for aquaculture training and extension. Freshwater aquaculture is governed by the Ministry of Agriculture, while marine aquaculture comes under the Ministry of Fisheries. However, acquiring a permit to practice aquaculture in Morocco has become very complicated due to the involvement of several Ministries. Another handicap for aquaculture development is the absence of popularization and awareness-raising programmes to encourage fish consumption and publicize the benefits of aquaculture. Both the private and public sector must find ways of acquiring knowledge on the international marketing of aquaculture products.

For extension activities, the government agencies or institutions may need full financial support and staff training. There are two government institutions responsible for aquaculture research: the Centre National d’Hydrobiologie et de Pisciculture (Eaux et Forêts) for freshwater and the Institut Scientifique des Pêches Maritimes (Ministry of Fisheries) for marine. Meanwhile, aquaculture research remains very rudimentary in Morocco. Government institutions may need technical and financial assistance from national and international organizations." [Abstract]

"This publication is a compilation of aquaculture production statistics for fish, crustaceans, molluscs and other aquatic animals, residues and plants. The following combinations of production statistics are presented: by species and by country; by country and by species; and by species and by environment. Values of production expressed in terms of US dollars are provided by country, species and species group, thus providing more detail than previous issues of Fisheries Circular No.815. A number of charts facilitate the interpretation of the data. Although the statistical coverage of the FAO aquaculture database is for the period 1984-94, this publication contains data for 1985-94. Where officially reported national statistics are lacking or are considering unreliable, FAO makes estimates based on the best information available. Quantities produced are expressed as live weight equivalents and so are equivalent to the nominal catch statistics published in the FAO Yearbook of Fishery Statistics - Catches and Landings." [Abstract]

"Egyptian aquaculture is one of the oldest in the world, as its basic principles were established several thousands of years ago. However, the first scientific approach only emerged about 60 years ago. The overall situation promoting the expansion of aquaculture in Egypt, especially the key supporting elements for that expansion, do exist. Aquaculture now accounts for about 15 % of total fishery production. Tilapia are the most favored species, especially Nile Tilapia (Oreochromis niloticus). Carp which were introduced at various times are now significantly contributing to freshwater aquaculture, particularly in the rice fields where the common carp (Cyprinus carpio) is the currently stocked species. Because of freshwater shortages, only hatcheries are allowed to use the best freshwater, while fish farms are totally dependent upon agricultural drainage water. Other water sources are not adequately exploited. Marine water seems promising. But marine fish farming will rely on wild fry for some time. Small-scale production of marine fish seed is currently underway. More fish species are being selected for aquaculture. African catfish (Clarias lazera) is one such example.

In order to achieve significant aquaculture development in Egypt, the required fish seed should be made more readily available. Development of hatchery technology for certain freshwater species (e.g., tilapias, catfish) and marine fishes (e.g., mullet, seabass and seabream) is necessary for aquaculture development. Extension services are essential for transferring problems encountered in the field to the lab for investigation, and in turn transfer the results back from the lab for application in the field." [Abstract]

"Although aquaculture is a relatively recent occurrence in Tunisia (i.e., three decades), during the last few years two main development periods may be considered: an active period during the 1980s and a ‘wait-and-see’ period since the beginning of the 1990s. The recently prepared Aquaculture Master Plan is a very useful tool. Nevertheless, during the preparation period a decrease of interest in this activity was noted due to the break of the initial impulse and the drop of the sale price of the two main finfish marine aquaculture species: seabass and seabream. Financing institutions are distrustful and require to be reassured about the feasibility of aquaculture activity.

Tunisian authorities are using their own best capabilities to re-start again the new marine aquaculture projects and to strengthen finfish aquaculture, mainly in dams and lakes. The aquaculture production is expected to reach 3 000 metric tons by the end of the century. In order to achieve these objectives, joint ventures with foreign partners must be encouraged. Some remaining difficulties and problems must be solved, particularly in financing, institutional and administrative fields. Concerning research and development programmes, more coordination is required given that good technical potentialities exist, especially in marine aquaculture (grow-up and hatchery) activities." [Abstract]

"None of the region’s countries depend on fish and fish products as a mainstay of the economy, and fish consumption is generally low compared to that of meat. Morocco has the most abundant resources available both for human consumption and as raw materials for the fish processing industry. It seems unlikely that there are any underfished stocks left in the Mediterranean. In the Gulf region, mesopelagic stocks could probably stand increased exploitation. Aquaculture production represents less than 1% of total world production. Assuming that fish consumption in the region remains relatively low by world standards, it would seem reasonable to expect that, at least until 2010, the increased demand could be met by higher landings of fish in the region as long as it is not diverted for export. Improved management should allow increased catches of certain stocks which are being intensively exploited at present, and stocks of small pelagic in particular should provide a basis for increased landings throughout the region." [Abstract]

"Globally, the contribution of the fisheries sector to the economy of the region is largely positive. Over the last decade, significant progress has occurred in terms of artisanal fisheries development, the consolidation of a small industrial base, growing export receipts leading to a positive trade balance, and more recently indications of a promising ‘take-off’ of aquaculture. Catches by distant-water fishing nations are steadily decreasing. In marine capture fisheries, most demersal stocks are thought to be fully exploited. The main potential for immediate increases of production and supply for local markets lies with low-value small pelagics species. Inland fisheries figure importantly in food security, providing over 40% of domestic catches. Freshwater production is, however, close to its estimated potential. Since 1990, per caput fish supply follows an alarming negative trend. The major challenge for the fisheries sector will be to maintain current levels of consumption. This will require significant efforts to improve the management of capture fisheries, support the development of aquaculture and promote intra-regional trade". [Abstract]

"This report presents the findings, conclusions and recommendations of an evaluation of UNDP/FAO technical assistance to aquaculture during the period 1974-1984. Specifically, the purpose of the evaluation was to identify recurring issues and to extract lessons of use for accelerating the introduction and/or improvement of aquaculture in developing countries, particularly by improving the selection, formulation and execution of aquaculture projects supported by UNDP and FAO." [from Summary]

"In recent years, demand for fish has increased steadily in Arab countries, and annual per capita fish consumption rose from 5.2kg in 1985 to about 6.4kg in 1993; this nevertheless remains well below the international annual average of about 13 kg. There is still a shortage of production compared with consumption. With the population growing rapidly, the gap is expected to grow even wider and give rise to food security risks. The shortages are covered via fish imports mostly from outside the region, creating a drain on hard currencies.

Development projects in fisheries and aquaculture activities may substantially contribute to an improved situation vis-à-vis food security. They will enhance employment opportunities, increase income, develop rural areas and generally improve standards of living for a large part of the rural population. Several proposals are suggested for overcoming the present state of affairs through the increase and development of research, statistical compilation and analysis, and a better utilization of Arab fishery resources. These suggestions include: closer surveillance, monitoring and control of marine and inland fisheries resources; joint venture companies between partners from capital-rich countries and their counterparts from fish-rich countries; greater participation of the private sector in fisheries projects supported by an adequate financial and legal framework encouraging investment; transfer of suitable technologies for upgrading the management and administration of the fisheries sector; technical production training; processing of value-added products; intensive marine and freshwater aquaculture programmes including projects on indigenous fish species; more efficient marketing and distribution channels; and a comprehensive fish consumption awareness campaign, as well as concentrated efforts to increase inter- and intra-regional trade in fish and fishery products." [Abstract]

"The last few years have seen a number of private-sector proposals to develop prawn farms within Tanzania’s mangrove forests. A recent proposal concerns a giant farm of more than 19 000 ha located in the Rufiji Delta. The enormous scale of the proposal and the inadequacy of the Environmental Impact Statement presented by the developer have prompted this review to contribute towards evaluating the existing economic situation of the Rufiji delta and the probable impact of this project on the environment and the people." [from Executive Summary]

The authors begin the review with the description of the natural and social setting of the Rufiji Delta followed by a brief description of economic activities. The proposed prawn farm, as it is reported in documentation, is discussed in the light of the current knowledge of environmental and social conditions. The external costs of this proposal are then briefly summarized. Finally, the authors suggest conditions that need to be satisfied in order for Tanzania to embark on prawn farming as a long-term and profitable venture. A scenario for the future development of the sector is advanced. [from Introduction]

"This report is invaluable for those working on Egyptian aquaculture, for it gives figures for product tonnage by species for the next ten years and for the surface area used in aquaculture, according to production environment and production system (intensive, semi-intensive and extensive). The contents and precision of this report attest to the work accomplished by the Egyptian section of the Information System for Production of Aquaculture in the Mediterranean (SIPAM)."

"This study was commissioned by the US Agency for International Development (AID) to determine why fish-farming development efforts in the Central and West African region have not had more impact and to suggest what form, if any, new development assistance projects for fish farming might take. The analysis was to include technical, economic, and social evaluations of past and current projects, so that the experience gained could be used in assessing new proposals." [from Introduction and Recommendations]

"This review discusses a range of literature relating to socio-economic and socio-cultural aspects of the adoption of aquaculture in Sub-Saharan Africa. This work was completed in 1992 as part of a wider ODA-funded study. It does not attempt to be a synthesis of all that is known about aquaculture development in Africa. Rather it is the response to a specific hypothesis: that aquaculture development in Africa has not been as successful as had been hoped, and that this has in part been due to inadequate consideration of social and cultural factors and their interaction with the technical element of production." [from Introduction]

"This literature review forms Part I of a research report submitted to the Institute of Aquaculture, University of Stirling. It is the final component of the project ODA-A02, Social and Cultural Barriers to the Development of Aquaculture in Africa, Phase I.

In Section 1, a variety of issues are explored and clarified. The differences between aquaculture and capture fisheries are elaborated, the point being that aquaculture in Africa is in many ways more similar to farming than fishing. Following discussion of the range of rationales for aquaculture development from both adopters and promoters, the conceptual difficulties surrounding the ideas of success and failure in aquaculture development are considered.

Section 2 addresses the supposed failure of aquaculture development in Africa. After an overview of literature tracing the history of aquaculture development, attempts to quantify the problem are assessed.

Section 3 discusses alternative explanations for these problems. Much of the literature tends to focus on ‘barriers’ located within rural communities, such as cultural attitudes and physical constraints such as land and labour. It is argued that it is important to see these in terms of their interaction with the promoters of aquaculture and the nature of the extension message." [from Preface and Summary]

"This report is arranged in three sections. The first section elaborates the context in which the study has taken place. It outlines past and current thinking concerning the problems and prospects for African aquaculture development. The analysis is derived from both the initial literature review and recent documentation and discussion. The second section presents the field work findings. The Luapula study generated a wealth of detailed information concerning both aquaculture practices and the links between rural communities and the agents of development, which is available in full in the main report.

The second section also incorporates findings from the comparative field studies. The third section presents suggestions for planning and development policy based around the outputs of the earlier sections. These are principally aimed at bilateral and multilateral donors." [from Preface]

"Aquaculture in South Africa during the 1980s has become firmly established as a small but dynamic industry and one that is here to stay. This follows a difficult teething period during the previous two decades, when the potential of aquaculture was realized. Unfortunately, due to inexperience and the complete lack of a supporting infrastructure, a number of bad decisions and expensive mistakes were made during the 1960s and 1970s. However, during the last five years the true character and potential of aquaculture in South Africa has begun to emerge. This has largely been a consequence of the tenacity of several committed aquaculturists, the successful initiation of the commercial production of a number of new species, a dedicated research effort and the development of dynamic marketing strategies.

The aim of this study was to gather accurate information from producers, researchers, allied industries and administrators on various aspects of the industry and then to define the status and future prospects of the industry." [from Introduction]

"The upsurge in South African aquaculture in the 1980s was unprecedented. Total production rose tenfold, from 345 t in 1980 to over 3000 t in 1988, with an estimated retail value of R 45 million. Moreover, 70% of all current aquaculture operations were established within the last five years. Mussels, which have only been cultured for the last five years, now account for slightly more than half of the total production. Trout take second place, followed by water hawthorn, oysters and catfish. In terms of value the order of priority is roughly the same, except that ornamental fish are third in generated revenue. Since the mid-1980s, aquaculture has been showing its true character and potential in South Africa, largely because of the tenacity of several committed aquaculturalists, the successful commercial production of a number of new species, a dedicated research effort and the development of dynamic marketing strategies." [Foreword]

The purpose of this EC-backed mission was to assess the possibilities of developing extensive pisciculture in Guinea. After identifying the huge potential in the region, the report briefly describes the reasons for the failure of previous pisciculture development attempts (1993), and then proceeds to try and devise a new approach, better adapted to the producers’ constraints. It proposes an original model combining an experiment from Asia (first-growing of fingerlings in hapa in the Philippines), with another conducted by ORSTOM in the Côte d’Ivoire on rearing fish with an acadja-bamboo system.

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