1. Achurra, M. 1991. Auge de cultivos en el norte. [Fish farming in the north of Chile] Chile Pesquero 65:31-34.

The creation and development of fish and shellfish farming enterprises in northern Chile is described. It is noted that this boom was attained because of the adequate conditions, environmental and economical, that occur in northern Chile. Finally, the possibilities of a greater expansion of these industries are analyzed.

A review on the development of the salmon culture in Chile is presented. The main advantages that allowed Chilean salmon farmers to reach a great quality in their products and also an increase in their exports are analyzed. Finally, it is noted that Chilean salmon exports reached 46 000 t and $US 250 million in 1992, making the country the second largest salmon producer in the world just after Norway.

This study investigated the economics of re-use waste-water aquaculture for the production of tilapia in the Water Treatment Facility of San Juan de Miraflores, Peru.

A mathematical programming model to determine optimal size and permanence (time) for the different water treatment tanks (primary, secondary and tertiary) were used. A market study in the Fish Market of Lima was conducted to determine the relative acceptance of waste-fed produced tilapia. Tilapia was sold for six months at specific locations in the market and consumers were surveyed to obtain information about their preferences, acceptance and willingness to pay for tilapia. The market study showed that consumers were willing to pay a higher price than for jack mackerel (the most common fish consumed by low-income families) and that the main attractive feature of tilapia for consumers was its freshness and size (250-300 g).

An additional analysis was conducted discussing the environmental impacts of human waste in re-use water systems for tilapia production, and the estimation of possible value of human waste for culture activities (through bidding systems).

The study was conducted in collaboration with, and under the supervision of, the Pan-American Centre for Sanitary Engineering of Peru. No diseases were detected throughout the culture and marketing process.

The history of aquaculture development in Ecuador is presented. The spectacular growth of shrimp production is analyzed and a description of the various production systems are discussed in relation to their yield rates, cost structures and economic performance. Figures related to Latin American shrimp production are also provided.

This three-part series examines the history, current status, and potential for the future of Ecuador’s farmed shrimp industry.

Commercial aquaculture in Chile has undergone spectacular development in the last 10 years, and thus has fuelled the parallel development of a set of related activities, among which the production of fish feeds stands out because of its technical implications and economic importance. An example of this development is the production of feed for salmonids, which has led to a strong national capacity not only in terms of production but also in terms of industrial research. This sector is expected to continue its growth trend in the coming years and will diversify by opening the way to new species and technologies, which will consequently demand expansion in the range of aquaculture feeds. In particular, the production of turbot (Scophthalmus maximus) and California red abalone (Haliotis rufescens) is expected to require new formulations, in the area of diets for grow-out as well as for the production of fingerlings and seeds. This work analyzes the general characteristics of the diets required by these farmed species, the research efforts which they should stimulate and the expected demand outlook for feeds in the coming years, in the light of the growth estimates for these crops and for other crops that are technologically similar.

An account is given of aquaculture in Cuba, describing the areas covered, species cultured, public and private financing, and problems to be resolved regarding development.

An economic analysis of the prawn culture enterprises operating in Peru is presented. Of the total of 104 enterprises reported, 64 have been sold and others have crashed. The costs for raising prawn has increased and the profitability is in a continuous slump. The taxes imposed by the Government concerning construction licenses, functioning licenses and export could lead this activity to a total collapse. Some solutions to decrease the costs and promote the growth of this industry are given.

In 1993, the world’s shrimp farmers produced an estimated 609 000 t of whole shrimp, down 16% from 721 000 t in 1992. China suffered the greatest drop, at the rate of 70%. Indonesia also registered a big drop. Ecuador experienced a drop in production, but since its production in 1992 was greater than originally reported and because the percentage of its drop was smaller than those of China and Indonesia, it jumped to the number two position in the world. India jumped to fourth position-ahead of China. Of last year’s top four producers, only Thailand increased production and the country now produces almost twice as much farm-raised shrimp as any other country in the world. Its days of ‘rape and run’ are over. With so much farm-raised shrimp removed from the market (an estimated 112 000 t), shrimp prices in the three leading markets- the USA, Europe and Japan - have been strong, even though all three markets are experiencing weak economic conditions. In the USA, in 1992, per capita shrimp consumption hit an all-time high of 2.5 pounds. Aquaculture Digest estimates that 60% of the shrimp consumed in the USA is farm-raised.

Police officials in Ecuador reported over $US 3 million in losses of farmed and wild-caught shrimp in 1993 to the infamous Gulf of Guayaquil pirates. However, maritime piracy around Guayaquil’s port is not a new problem as this article explains.

In November 1, 1993, a news release from Marine Harvest International, a USA-based corporation which farms salmon (62% of sales) in Scotland and Chile and shrimp (31% of sales in Ecuador), reported "record earnings of $US 3.3 million on sales of $US 34.9 million for the fourth quarter ended September 30, 1993, compared to a net loss of $US 13.8 million on sales of $US 26.7 million for the fourth quarter ended September 30, 1992."

Aquaculture development can be very interesting in tropical zones, because the growth is faster for transplanted as well as local species. Economic aspects also seem favourable: the final costs are not too high. The French Government policy is to develop aquaculture in the West Indies and Guyana with financial aid.

This book is intended to be a help guide for technicians lending technical assistance to artisanal fishermen and farmers. In addition, the governmental regulations on artisanal fishing are described and the social, cultural and economic aspects of this activity are analyzed. All the processes involved in this activity, from the capture to commercialization and consumption, are described and recommendations for improving these aspects are given.

The old saying, ‘It is an ill wind that blows no good’, was certainly true for Cuba’s aquaculture development, which was a direct result of one of Cuba’s worst natural disasters. In 1963, hurricane Flora caused massive flooding throughout Cuba. In 1964, to reduce the possibility of flooding from future heavy rainfalls, Fidel Castro instituted a major programme of dam construction, creating numerous reservoirs to retain flood waters. The introduction of tilapia and several carp species into the reservoirs in 1968 marked the start of the Cuban aquaculture industry. From that early beginning, aquaculture has grown to employ 4 400 people and produce a harvest of 20 000 t, representing more than 10% of the total fisheries production in Cuba. Black bass, sunfish and common carp were first introduced into Cuba from China in 1928, but at that time there were no lakes or appropriate water bodies for extensive culture of these species. Introductions of tilapia, silver, bighead and grass carp in 1968 represented a cornerstone in the development of Cuban aquaculture. In recent years, the channel catfish (introduced from Mexico in 1979) has yielded promising results from intensive culture in floating cages or raceways. Three species of tilapia were introduced in 1968 (Oreochromis aureus, Oreochromis mossambicus, and Oreochromis niloticus).

16. Bello, R.A. 1992. Problematica sobre las posibilidades de procesamiento y comercialización de la cachama (Colossoma macropomum) cultivada en Venezuela. In: Segunda Consulta de Expertos sobre Tecnología de Productos Pesqueros en América Latina, Montevideo, Uruguay, Dec. 11-15 1989. Rome, Italy, Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations. No. 441, suppl. pp. 299-302

Various measures have been taken in recent years in Venezuela to improve the culture of Colossoma macropomum. Despite such efforts, the expected increase in demand of the product has not been reached. An examination is made of the possible reasons for this, making reference to information obtained from different retail sellers in the region of Caracas. The following conclusions were reached: (i) this species is little known by the consumer; (ii) there is no demand for the species, even though its price is relatively low compared to other fish; (iii) very few retailers market this species, and then occasionally to a limited number of consumers; and (iv) marine fish species are preferred by the consumer. Various suggestions are made to overcome these problems.

This special issue provides a description of the development of aquaculture in Peru in the last ten years; characterized by a fast growth of products with a high international price, but a slow development of those products considered low-price food.

18. Bermudez, A., Pacheco, A. and Rodriguez, A. 1983. Bibliografia sobre ciencias del mar, acuacultura y recursos pesqueros [A Bibliography on Marine Science, Aqauculture, and Fishery Resources]. Documentos de Trabajo, Investigaciones en Ciencias Economicas, no. 53. San José, Costa Rica, Universidad de Costa Rica, Instituto de Investigaciónes en Ciencias Económicas.

This bibliography lists publications (statistics, case studies, and legislation) dealing with Costa Rican marine science, aquaculture, and fishery resources

Due to its unusual geography, Chile is an isolated country. Indeed, it has often been compared to an island. Within its borders there are 13 administrative regions encompassing 756 626 km², most of which is mountainous (less than 20% of the area is plains) and geologically unstable. Active volcanoes are numerous and earthquakes are a frequent occurrence. These facts are also important for an appreciation of Chilean progress in fisheries and aquaculture, which has been considerable. Chilean aquaculture has grown dramatically, and is currently focused on seaweeds, scallops and salmonids. The Chilean capture fisheries are among the most productive in the world (Table 1), ranking between third and sixth, depending on the year (6 million mt in 1986 and 6.6 million mt in 1989). Seaweed cultivation is relatively new in Chile, having developed from research conducted at the University of Concepcion and the Instituto de Fomento Pesquero (IFOP) in Bahia Inglesa between 1967 and 1969. Little research was done during the next 13 years, because the production technology was undeveloped and the profitability appeared questionable. Starting in 1983, because of an increase in the price of agar, the value of the American dollar compared to the Chilean peso, and the development of new techniques, Chilean private companies became interested in agar production and the cultivation of Gracilaria (1 237 mt in 1983). The species of ‘pelillo’ produced in Chile is Gracilaria chilensis. Fish culture will continue to develop, and the industry is already considering diversifying from salmonids into marine finfish species such as turbot or local species. The salmonid industry is growing rapidly, and Chile has the potential to become the third largest producer of farmed salmonids in the world.

This review provides information on salmonid farming in Chile for marine and freshwater cultured species. Technical and economic data are given for intensive and extensive culture. The last part of the review deals with future prospects.

"Since 1973, several initiatives have been taken by the State Fisheries Extension Association of Santa Catarina (ACARPESC) to promote warmwater fish culture, including: (i) direct technical assistance to producers, (ii) subsidizing fry prices; (iii) promoting fresh fish markets; (iv) encouraging the formation of producer’s associations; (v) offering short courses on fish meat preservation and cooking; and (vi) introducing basic fish culture lessons to agricultural high schools. While obtaining slight responses in the 1970s, fish culture promotion initiatives allied to local favourable conditions had an impressive impact in the 1980s. It is estimated that almost 10% of Santa Catarina’s total number of small- and medium-operation farmers are involved in fish production in earthen ponds. In the 1990s, while the Government significantly decreased rural extension efforts, Santa Catarina’s fish culture sector now experiences a welcome autonomous growth. Applied research intensification and environmental constraints on animal manure use are foreseeable challenges in the coming years." [Abstract]

This paper presents a dynamic model for the shrimp mariculture industry in Ecuador; optimal control theory is used to determine efficient post-larvae and shrimp production levels of the industry.

The primary objective of this study was to investigate the socio-economic feasibility of the saltwater cage culture of Florida red tilapia as a new production activity in Haiti. Market outlets and potential prices for saltwater-reared red tilapia in Haiti were examined. Availability and prices of inputs to production were considered. Although this information was collected in the context of Haiti, it is relevant to other developing countries when assessing the potential for a mariculture industry.

The document examines the situation regarding fisheries and aquaculture in the cold inland waters of 12 states in Latin America. Only a few autochthonous species are of economic importance (Basilichthys and Orestias). The introduced species of Oncorhynchus mykiss and Salmo trutta dominate the sporting and recreational fisheries of the majority of Latin American countries. The salmonids are the only fish to be produced in freshwater ponds. In Chile, which is the major freshwater fish producing country of Latin America, the production of Pacific and Atlantic salmon in cages has shown a rapid growth. Countries showing potential for expanding the inland fisheries and aquaculture sectors are Chile, Argentina, Mexico, Venezuela, Colombia, Ecuador and Panama.

"This report presents the results of an analysis on the feasibility of cage rearing salmon in Southern Chile. Production is discussed in relation to growth rates, feed conversion, disease and environmental conditions followed by an economic appraisal in relation to capacity, profitability and market penetration. Investment and operating costs are examined for three types of cage design." [Abstract]

In Chile, the cultivation of fish, mussel and seaweed has expanded significantly over the last decade. This review considers the accumulated knowledge on the environmental effects of aquaculture in Chilean coastal areas, analyzes the capacity of the industry to treat its waste and also gives some insight into new culture technologies and strategies that are currently under research and discussion in Chile.

Data relating to the environmental impact of aquaculture in Chile are scarce and much is subject to severe methodological restrictions with regard to sampling design. Results related to the environmental effects show that seaweed cultivation can have an impact on sedimentation processes, the increase of invertebrate assemblages and algal epiphytic abundances. It has also been ascertained that mollusc farming causes biodeposition, faunal changes and possible effects related to the introduction of new species, as well as pathogens and other unforeseen species. It has been affirmed that fish cultivation, particularly of salmon species, also has an environmental impact related to organic sedimentation and changes in the fauna. However, these results indicate that, in general, the current dynamics of bays and fjords seem to be an important factor for the environmental sustainability of the salmon culture areas. Salmon cultivation has also been associated with phytoplankton blooms, but this point was not supported by a monitoring programme in southern Chile. Furthermore, there is concern related to new pathogen introduction and therapeutical applications to the fish cultures, and further research is required in this field. Regulations to protect the environment from the consequences of aquaculture activities have been adopted during the last couple of years. The main regulations are provided by international market standards. Nevertheless, these regulations can only be effective if other human activities, such as urban discharge, intensive agriculture fertilization and pesticide utilization, are taken into consideration, in an integrated perspective. On the other hand, the Chilean salmon farming industry, in particular, would be in a position to cover the costs involved in the treatment of waste waters, if feeding management were improved in the future.

Finally, active research is currently being undertaken into new cultivation strategies, such as the use of integrated cultivation and the recycling of nutrient-rich waters, which should permit the diversification of this economic activity in Chile, while minimizing the environmental impact.

"This review contains information about the cultivation techniques, strategies, problems and new challenges, as well as an economic analysis of the income-producing capacity of Gracilaria farming, considering the variability of environmental systems where this alga is cultivated in southern Chile. The development of Gracilaria farming in Chile was made possible by an increased market demand, as well as the existence of basic knowledge that permitted the management of wild stocks and the initiation of cultivation practices. Subtidal cultivation systems appear to be more productive than intertidal systems and are less susceptible to wave action than intertidal cultivation areas. In relation to farming practices, this difference implies that planting and harvesting methods and strategies vary between habitats where cultivation is being carried out on a commercial scale. Several problems, such as the environmental impact of different cultivation methods adopted by the farmers, the management of contaminating organisms and strain selection appear to be important and new areas for future research. Finally, an analysis of the income-producing capacity indicates that environmental differences also have important consequences for the management strategies of Gracilaria cultivation." [Abstract]

This book shows the evolution of shrimp production since its early beginnings ten years a decade before (Chapter 1) when shrimp represented about $US 21 million per year as export earnings until the current contribution of almost $US 400 million, and generating employment to approximately 81.620 people.

Chapter 2 describes the evolution of shrimp aquaculture, starting with 266 vessels. Later, emphasis is placed on culture activities in which 100.000 ha of ponds produce about 100 million pounds of shrimp (headed) per year. It describes the process of how shrimp is cultured and contains a detailed analysis of the costs structure of the industry (Chapter 4). It points out that the Price Index does not properly reflect changes in input costs of shrimp and the problems it presents to the shrimp producers of Ecuador. Chapter 8 describes the main bottle neck of shrimp aquaculture (larvae). Chapter 9 presents a financial analysis of the industry and future challenges and trends are outlined in chapters 10 and and 11.

The metamorphosis of laboratory-reared larvae of the gastropod Concholepas concholepas was observed under the influence of K super(+) ions. After 64 hours of incubation at 10° C, 58% of larvae metamorphosed in response to 20 mM K super(+) final concentration in seawater, 11 mM above ambient. No effect was observed at 15 mM K super(+). Likewise, larvae were unable to survive when exposed to 25 mM K super(+). Metamorphosed individuals of C. concholepas migrated to the water-air interface within 28 hours of their metamorphosis. This study reports the first successful experiment on the induction of metamorphosis in laboratory-reared larvae of C. concholepas. The advantages of mass production of larvae with metamorphic capacity of this economically important resource, related to its eventual culture on a pilot scale are discussed.

The paper discusses the role of aquaculture in the social and economic development of Latin America. It describes the activities of the Action Committee on Freshwater Products of the Latin American Economic System for the development of aquaculture in Latin American countries are described.

This study presents the estimated cost of Colossoma macropomum broodstock formation, with fingerlings of average weight of 4.82 g, until the first gonadal maturation. The experimental rearing was realized at CEPTA/IBAMA, in a covered pond of 350m ² - T1, and without cover - T2. The rearing was realized in four consecutive phases between 10/05/89 and 10/11/92 and the cost estimate considered in the economic analysis refers to the pond T1, because of the occurrence of 97.31% of mortality in the first phase of rearing for the pond without a cover. At the completion of the experiment, the total operational cost was $US 687.80. The estimate of the total cost of rearing was $US 1 176.95, corresponding to $US 5.13/kg of broodstock.

"The transfer of aquaculture technology and the establishment of commercial tilapia farming as a viable industry was successful in Jamaica. Production has increased from 2.2 mt in 1977 to 1 442 mt in 1986, representing 6.3% of total fish consumption and 15% of national production in Jamaica. Production for 1987 is estimated at 2 600 mt from 720 ha (1 780 acres) of ponds.

This dramatic increase in production may be attributed to the Government of Jamaica Inland Fisheries Project (1976-1983), and other factors and circumstances that prevailed during that time. This paper looks at tilapia farming in Jamaica from the point of view of identifying the reasons for its success. Tilapia farming was successfully introduced in Jamaica, although the initial primary objective to promote rural development through small-scale aquaculture was not fully realized. The commercial sector is shaping the evolution of aquaculture in the island. Factors contributing to the success included: profitability and rate of return on investment; decline in marine fish production; lack of foreign exchange; low world market prices for sugar; and the policy of the diversification of agriculture; availability of credit; and institutional support, coupled with a realistic research, training and extension programme." [from Abstract]

A study of the cost for a experimental culture of pacu (P. mesopotamicus) was carried out at CEPTA, in cages of 8m³(3), using alternative food (hortifruit and grange rest, chicken’s visceras and corn meal), in comparison with a feed of 25% crude protein, balanced for fish. In 80 days of culture, the estimate of the alimentation cost was $US 22.67 for the culture with alternative food and $US 193.37 for the balanced feed, corresponding to 13.67% and 59.07%, respectively, of the total cost. The total cost of pacu culture with alternative food was $US 0.67/kg and $US 1.22/kg for balanced feed. This cost can be reduced with the development of the culture technology that can improve the apparent conversion ratio, which was estimated for this experiment at 8.42:1 for the alternative food and 7.14:1 for the balanced food.

This publication presents findings of an investigation conducted on the tilapia market in Latin America and the Caribbean. Data regarding fish culture production and fish catches were obtained from the following countries: Chile, Venezuela, Cuba, Jamaica, Guatemala, Mexico, Panama, Peru, the Dominican Republic and El Salvador. In the majority of these countries, the fish go to the processing industry.

The fostering of different fishery projects in Chile is reviewed. The following aspects are of major importance: the fish reduction industry, specially focused on the improvement of the drying methods, replacing the antioxidants, developing ecological containers and optimizing the production of special fish oils. With respect to aquaculture, great interest is focused on the development of pathological research, the culture of new species and on energy saving in fish farms. Finally, there is also interest in developing new technologies with the aim of incorporating greater value added to the fishery products actually produced.

Three different types of fish culture were evaluated in eight earthen ponds in western Puerto Rico: (i) monoculture of channel catfish (Ictalurus punctatus); (ii) monoculture of Sarotherodon hybrids; and (iii) polyculture of the two. Results showed all three types to be economically viable. [In: Hanfman, D.T., Tibbitt, S., Watts, C. and Alston, D. Aquaculture in the Caribbean Basin: a Bibliography (1970-1988).]

The author gives a brief history of the shrimp culture in Ecuador; exposing the evolution of culture techniques and giveing data on the economics of this culture.

Flours from corn, sorghum, pearl millet, rice, and meals from pasta and cookie by-products were tested as dietary ingredients for juveniles of Penaeus vannamei (0.7 g average weight). These ingredients replaced wheat meal used in the control diet as the main carbohydrates source. Significant differences (P < 0.001) were found in the final weight of the shrimp fed the different carbohydrate sources during 28 days. Shrimp fed the wheat meal (control) and the cookie-waste meal diets had the best growth rate, followed by shrimp fed the rice-meal diet, and finally the least efficient diets were those containing corn, sorghum, pearl millet and pasta meal which did not differ significantly. All the experimented diets resulted in very good feed conversion ratios (FCR) (1.2-1.4), except for the pasta diet (1.8). In terms of shrimp production cost, it was noticed that cheaper carbohydrate source prices can overcome the effect of slightly higher FCRs. The potential of the use of cookie and pasta by-products in shrimp feed was demonstrated, since both are inexpensive and their use resulted in excellent to good growth rates. To verify the carbohydrate impact on dietary protein sparing, it is suggested that soft wheat meal be used as a control ingredient.

The paper describes a project that took place in the Bahia de Buenaventura, in the Pacific Colombian coast, and also includes a socio-economic study of the community.

This is a report of a Working Group on the Development of Mariculture in the Smaller Islands of the Caribbean Region. Aquaculture activities in some of the Caribbean Islands are reviewed briefly and some aquaculture technologies discussed. Based on observations by the Working Group, the developmental prospects in the Caribbean as a whole are summarized.

43. FAO/UNDP. 1991. Mexico. Diagnóstico integral de las granjas acuicolas camaroneras en el estado de Sinaloa. Mazatlan, FAO/UNDP Fomento y Desarrollo de la Acuicultura y Maricultura, Mazatlan, Mexico. FAO-FI-MEX/87/018 Doc. campo.

An account is given of an analysis made of the current situation regarding shrimp (Penaeus vannamei) culture farms in the State of Sinaloa, Mexico. The document is presented under the following chapter headings: Development of the Project MEX/87/018; General and legal aspects; Technical aspects; Social aspects; Economic-financial aspects; Proposed solutions; Investment models; and Conclusions. Data regarding optimal conditions, costs, expenditures and major taxes are provided. Three types of pond culture systems are also evaluated: extensive; semi-intensive; and intensive.

A review on the problematics for the development of crocodile culture in Mexico is presented. It is noted that amongst the main problems are low egg production, the high mortality rate of the broods and a slow growth rate. A methodology for the handling of Crocodylus moreletii broods under captivity is suggested, which takes into consideration the economic conditions of this region and the availability of materials. A total of 219 broods were analyzed; monthly measurements of total length and weight were realized throughout a year. Results showed a growth average of 2.6 - 3.0 cm/month and a mortality of 26% was recorded.

The study deals with those involved in shrimp larva harvesting activities. The larva harvest has helped to provide the basic raw material for fast development of shrimp aquaculture and has also provided an alternative source of income for the people living in the coast and nearby islands of Ecuador.

The development of shrimp culture activities in Mexico is analyzed. It is noted that the lack of knowledge led to unsatisfactory results in most cases. Among the problems of shrimp culture in Mexico, the most outstanding ones are excessive bureaucracy, the lack of financing, the deficient organization of the cooperatives involved in these activities, the lack of technical assistance for the farmers and the lack of adequate commercialization policies. Finally, the analysis includes details of the environmental impact of the shrimp culture activities and some recommendations for the improvement of these activities are included.

This research aims to determine the best uses of mangrove areas, with special emphasis on the shrimp mariculture industry in Ecuador. Traditionally, mangrove areas have been considered useless resources with no economic value except through development. Consequent conversion or exploitation of mangrove areas for urban infrastructure development, agricultural development and, more recently, shrimp mariculture has been taking place in several developing countries. The growing concern for the environment and sustainable development has stressed the multiple-use nature of mangrove areas and the associated tradeoffs of their use. Mangrove ecosystems are being increasingly recognized as important renewable resources capable of providing not only goods and services, but also of providing natural ecological functions. Economic value may then be associated with mangroves in their natural state.

The centerpiece of this work is a formal model integrating biotechnical, ecological, economic, and policy factors to determine the characteristics of the economic activities competing for the use of mangrove areas. These activities include shrimp mariculture, mangrove forestry and coastal artisanal fisheries. A simple measure of benefits derived from natural ecological functions performed by mangrove areas is also considered. Standard concepts of natural and environmental resource economics, biological population dynamics and management strategies are combined to determine net social benefits generated by alternative uses of mangrove areas. A multi-sector, dynamic bio-economic model is developed to determine the optimal intertemporal allocation of mangrove areas among the four alternative activities. The model is used to calculate present values of net benefits under four alternative management strategies. The results support a set of policy recommendations for management of coastal fisheries and aquacultural resources in Ecuador.

Following a brief historical account of salmon farming in Chile, details are given of the current structure of the industry. Production and export data are discussed and an examination is made of future prospects for the industry.

The response of Nile tilapia (Oreochromis niloticus) yield to weekly applications of chicken litter at 125, 250, 500 or 1 000 kg total solids (T.S.)/ha was determined in Honduras and Panama, using a completely randomized design. Tilapia were stocked at 10 000/ha into earthen ponds of 0.1-ha (Honduras) and 0.087-ha (Panama). Each experiment, which lasted approximately 150 days, was performed during the rainy and dry season. Enterprise budgets were developed for each fertilization rate in each country. Gross yield of tilapia (y) increased significantly with chicken litter applications (x) in both countries, and was described by the model y = 797.3 + 2.945x - 0.001x ² (r² = 0.775; n = 48). Gross yields ranged from 827-2 729 kg/ha in 147 days during the rainy season, and from 1 145-2 984 kg/ha in 150 days during the dry season. Maximum tilapia gross yields were achieved at 1 000 kg T.S./ha/week chicken litter in both countries. In Honduras, rainy season (1 761 kg/ha in 152 days) and dry season (1 705 kg/ha in 150 days) mean tilapia gross yields were similar (P = 0.05). Dry season

(2 071 kg/ha in 149 days) mean tilapia gross yield in Panama was significantly greater (P < 0.05) than rainy season mean gross yield (1 683 kg/ha in 141 days). Rainy season climatic conditions in Panama probably contributed to the lower fish yields. Mean fish gross yield at the cooler, drier Honduras site (1 733 kg/ha in 151 days), an upland valley located 580 m above sea level, and at the Panama site

(1 855 kg/ha in 145 days), a coastal plateau 100 m above sea level, was similar (P = 0.05). Mean gross yields were similar in both countries for all but the highest fertilization rate, where the Panama mean yield was significantly greater. This difference was caused by site-specific factors other than nutrient input. The use of chicken litter as an organic fertilizer was profitable in both Honduras and Panama. Net returns to land, labour and management during the 5.5-month production cycle ranged from $US 642 to $ US 1 724/ha (Honduras) or from $US 237 to $US 313/ha (Panama) for the low to high fertilization rates, respectively. Application of 1 000 kg T.S./ha/week chicken litter yielded the greatest estimated profit in both countries.

"Shrimp culture in the Americas began in the early 1970s and has experienced rapid growth in some Latin American countries. Currently, Latin America produces one-third of all cultured shrimp with Ecuador as the leading country in the world. Availability of postlarvae and a favourable year-round climate have been the most important factors causing a ‘Gold Rush’ expansion in Ecuador. The long-term potential for shrimp mariculture in Latin America is promising. Projections for 1990 production of cultured shrimp by Latin American countries are between 60 000-70 000 mt. Shrimp culture in the USA has begun with the entry of a few small firms.

In this paper, investment and production costs are examined for a semi-intensive farm that purchases postlarvae and operates in the southern USA. Total investment decreases as pond size increases for a given size facility. Investment per kilogram of annual average production ranges from just under $US $20.00 for a 20-surface ha farm using 2-ha ponds to $US 80.00 for a 400-ha system using 20-ha ponds. Operation costs per kilogram decline as the size of the system and the size of the ponds increase. It costs $US 10.10 to produce one kilogram of shrimp on a 20-surface ha farm using 2-ha ponds, compared to $US 5.50 on a 400-surface ha farm using 20-ha ponds.

In comparing the operation of a semi-intensive 200-ha farm in Ecuador with a similar farm in the USA, costs of production were $US 3.12 and $US 5.83 per kilogram, respectively. The after-tax internal rate of return (IRR) was 59% in Ecuador and 21% in the USA. These IRRs were calculated under the assumption that production, costs and prices received are constant over the investment period (10 years) considered. When risk and timing of investment are considered, these IRRSs are reduced." [from Abstract]

"Field data collected in Panama were analyzed to assess the economic feasibility of integrating aquaculture into small-scale semi-subsistence agricultural production systems. Each site was managed collectively by a group of families in the community and total water surface area was about 0.5 ha. A modular pond system including one grow-out pond of about 0.25 ha and one to three nursery and brood ponds was used to provide a degree of self-sufficiency in tilapia seed supply. The ponds were fertilized by manure from either pigs, chickens, ducks or cattle.

Cost and returns were developed and rate of return was used as the feasibility criterion. Results indicated that fish produced with either duck, chicken or hog manure were economically feasible alternatives in small -cale semi-subsistence production systems.

Integrated agro-agriculture systems are economically viable for small semi-subsistence farmers, where suitable land and water are available and employment opportunities and nutrition are critical needs." [from Abstract]

"Financial and economic analyses of small-scale aquaculture systems were conducted using data from Guatemala. Systems analyzed included non-integrated low- and high-nutrient input and integrated fish broiler and fish layer. The cash cost for construction of a 120m² family fish pond was only $US 5-10. Construction of hand-dug ponds was economically limited only by the availability of family labour. The principal nutrients added to most non-integrated ponds were animal manure (45%) and low-quality supplemental feeds (55%). Fish yields were generally 1 500 to 2 800 kg/ha in six months.

High-nutrient, non-integrated fish farming produced lower net returns than the low-nutrient system when an opportunity cost for family labour was included. High-nutrient fish farming was more appropriate when family labour was underemployed and income generation was inadequate.

Average fish yield from fish-broiler ponds was 3 650 kg/ha during a six-month production cycle. Start-up and operating costs were high for the fish-broiler enterprise, but economic and financial indicators were highly positive, with net annual return to land and management exceeding

$US 250/100m² and an internal rate of return greater than 200%. In comparison with non-integrated fish enterprises, association with broilers more than doubled financial viability and nearly tripled economic viability. The high capital investment requirements, however, exclude many farmers. Average production from fish-layer ponds was 2 876 kg of fish and edible snails per hectare of pond during a 6-month production cycle. Like the broiler-integrated ponds, nearly two-thirds of the fish crop were individuals larger than 15 cm.

Integration with poultry was a productive and labour-saving method of improving the economic viability of fish farming. Fish-poultry integrated ponds produced more fish than high-nutrient, nonintegrated fish farming, and pond labour requirements were one-third lower. Poultry and mixed vegetable enterprises, produced almost exclusively for income generation, had greater cash flows than non-integrated fish production. However, fish raised for both sale and home consumption gave farmers flexibility for short-term adjustments to the nutritional and financial needs of their families. Fish-layer operations had the highest financial and economic risk of all enterprises. In contrast with the fishbroiler and non-integrated fish enterprises, the survival rates and laying efficiency of hens were highly variable, thus further compounding the risk for the fish-layer enterprise." [Abstract]

A description of the operation of a pilot plant for oyster production is presented, with descriptions of aspects of the oyster food production, the maintenance of a wet laboratory, oyster nursery and floating cages. It was concluded that there are almost no technical limitations for oyster seed production and the main limitations are economical. The author discusses the economical factors affecting this activity, emphasizing the costs of the facilities and maintenance of the installations and suggesting the introduction of exotic species.

"A preliminary assessment of the marketability of saltwater-cultured Florida red tilapia was conducted at a farm outlet store and at nine restaurants in Puerto Rico. Florida red tilapia were grown in six 0.2-ha ponds at 22.7 +- 1.2 (mean +- SE) ppt salinity by a commercial aquaculture enterprise in Dorado, northeastern Puerto Rico. Customers purchased 4 683 kg of dressed-out fish (gilled, gutted and scaled) at $US 7.70/kg and 826 kg of whole fish at $US 6.60/kg from a retail outlet store located at the aquaculture farm, while nine restaurants purchased 1 071 kg of dressed-out fish at wholesale prices ranging from $US 4.96 to $US 5.18/kg. Farm outlet customers and restaurants preferred dressed-out fish between 454-567 g and 567-580 g, respectively. Prices paid per serving by restaurant customers for red tilapia ($US 7.00-25.00) were similar to that paid for silk snapper Lutjanus vivanus, a popular marine food fish in Puerto Rico. Market surveys of customers at these outlets showed that 75-81% of the respondents were new consumers of red tilapia and that they rated the fish highly in taste, texture, freshness and presentation and equal to or better than silk snapper. There was no effect (P>0.05) of age group or economic level on consumer responses. Survey participants stressed the need for product promotion, including a more market-oriented name that emphasized the fact that it was a red colour and was farm-raised in saltwater, to distinguish it from dark-coloured, wild-caught freshwater tilapia. Local saltwater production of Florida red tilapia could help supply the market demand for fresh, marine fish in Puerto Rico if producers could meet the demand for quality, availability and price." [from Abstract]

"An economic analysis was performed of a proposed commercial-scale 20-ha saltwater pond culture operation for Florida red tilapia in Dorado, northern Puerto Rico. The analysis was based on actual cost and production data from a commercial-scale hatchery, pilot-scale growout trials conducted in six 0.2-ha saltwater (avg. = 22.7 ppt) ponds at the Dorado facility and on wholesale market prices ($US 4.96-5.18/kg) fetched by dressed-out (gilled, gutted and scaled) product. The proposed 20-ha grow-out facility is comprised of 25 0.8-ha earthen ponds, each supplied with seawater, brackish well water, drainage and aeration, which account for 60.8% of the capital costs. Ponds are stocked with fingerlings (0.85 g avg. wt.) at a density of 3.0 fish/m² (30 000/ha), and are harvested at 160 and 220 d, at an average weight of 545 g for a total yield of 11 445 kg/ha per crop. Imported feed ($US 0.55/kg), processing and distribution ($US 0.50/kg) and sex-reversed fry ($US 0.11/fry) are the highest variable costs, accounting for 30.7%, 15.4% and 13.9%, respectively, of the total annual costs. Salaries and benefits, and depreciation represent the highest fixed costs, accounting for 8.4% and 5.5%, respectively, of the total annual costs. Under these conditions, a wholesale price of $US 4.55/kg results in a positive cash flow by year eight, and a breakeven price, internal rate of return (IRR), net present value (NPV) and discounted payback period (DPP) of $US 4.08/kg, 7.6%, ($235,717) and >10 yr, respectively, suggesting that the proposed 20-ha operation is not economically feasible under these conditions. The proposed enterprise is marginally feasible if stocking density is increased to 3.5 fish/m² while at 4.0 fish/m ² economic outlook is favourable. Costs can be lowered considerably by targeting production and market variables most sensitive to profitability indices, using locally-prepared feeds, and vertically integrating hatchery and grow-out operations." [Abstract]

The 19 papers of the first meeting of the Working Group on Colossoma Culture are presented. Some 70 specialists from 23 institutions from Brazil, Colombia, Ecuador, Panama, Peru, and Venezuela attended this meeting. The actual state of the Colossoma culture in each country is analyzed. The advances and the problems that need to be solved in respect to reproduction, fry rearing, nutrition, culture systems, ichthyopathology, post-production, commercialization, and economical evaluation are discussed.

The publication describes the topics discussed at a meeting which covered the evaluation of the production process, research, experimental culture, post-production, marketing and socio-economic aspects of mollusc culture in Latin America. Abstracts of the papers presented are cited individually.

The paper analyzes the possibilities of aquaculture as a development factor to improve the living and working conditions of the communities in the coast of Colombia.

The operating efficiency of aquaculture centres is analyzed, and the factors affecting the development of aquaculture activities are examined in the studied zones of Huila, Meta, Caldas, Valle, Cordoba and Atlantico. Aquaculture activities are developed at two levels: (i) large-scale, commercial enterprises in an expanding process; and (ii) minor scale, farming and subsistence.

A bio-economic analysis for semi-intensive grow-out of the native species Penaeus stylirostris in the Bahia Magdalena-Almejas, BCS., lagoon complex is presented. The best results were obtained when pelleted feed (PF) and inorganic fertilizer (IF) were used. Shrimp growth was determinant in the economic performance of culture operations. Feasible break-even levels for semi-intensive culture operations were identified by modifying the initial values of selected parameters. The break-even point was achieved by increasing stocking density from 1.6 to 3.2 and 5.1 juveniles/m ² for PF and IF, respectively. The same result was obtained for PF by simultaneously modifying feeding cost (-18%), water exchange volume (-20%) and pumping efficiency (+20%). For IF, the modifications needed were -50 and +125%, for the last two parameters, and a 50% reduction in seed and labour costs.

This Report of the Evaluation Team notes that aquaculture development should not only be aimed at developing high technology commercial ventures, but also include small-scale local aquaculture ventures aimed at self-sufficiency and local markets.

In the past decade, shrimp has become the fastest growing export product of both Ecuador and Taiwan; indeed the countries are ranked among the leading world exporters of shrimp. In Ecuador, the foreign exchange earned from shrimp culture is the most important revenue after oil. Furthermore, it demands labour at different levels of expertise and is becoming an important factor in the economic development of the country. (from Introducción).

In this thesis, a bio-economic model for salmon aquaculture is developed and applied to Chilean salmon production, determinant on feeding and harvesting time under alternative scenarios.

This article describes research that was set up in two experimental batches, in aquaria and brick layering ponds at the Aquaculture Centre of the Universidade Estadual Paulista ‘Júliode Mesquita Filho, ‘Campus’ Jaboticabal, Sao Paulo, Brazil, from September 1979 to March 1980. The site was located at 21° 15’22" South latitude and 595 m of altitude, which aimed to determine the optimum proteic dietary level that enhances the best performance for hybrid tilapia (Oreochromis hornorum male x O. niloticus female) fingerlings.

"This article takes a brief look at the impact of aquaculture production on prices in the world market. The more popular cultured species considered in the article are shrimp, salmon, seabass, and seabream. While prices of cultured species in general have reacted adversely to production, shrimp prices managed to increase steadily." [Abstract]

Puerto Rico, the French Antilles, French Guiana and Brazil started freshwater prawn culture (Macrobrachium rosenbergii) in the 1970s. The several elements of these programmes can be classified into two main aspects: the technical feasibility of this culture, from scientific know-how to commercial profitability; and the economic sustainability, from social environment to long-term profitability. There are two phases in the development: the initial phase of settlement, and the second phase of growth or stabilized production. The first factors of success for Puerto Rico, the French Antilles and Brazil have been a good initial profitability thanks to a high price local market, reliable infrastructures, the strong will of a few entrepreneurs and an excellent acceptance of aquaculture in the region. During the second phase, marketing and technology improvement through cooperation with research appear to be determinant for long-term profitability. The failure in French Guiana was due to the lack of infrastructures and efficient farmers. In prawn development and probably in aquaculture at large, the economic environment seems to be more important than technology in the start-up phase, but in the long term it is research and marketing that emerge as key elements.

Freshwater prawn culture cannot yet be compared to the very large-scale development of marine shrimps for which there is a global market. But for small-scale economics, such as those of the Caribbean islands, Macrobrachium culture can contribute to the diversification of local products. Several questions come to mind. What are the common elements in the various projects? Are the main problems similar, whatever the location? Are there important lessons to be learned from 15 years of experience? Will the analysis of several projects reveal the factors which determine success or failure? Can the conclusions of this study be generalized for application to other aquaculture development programmes? The answers to these questions could provide useful guidelines for further development. As it was impractical to study all the projects and all the countries involved in the early stages of Macrobrachium culture, four countries in which prawn development programmes show an array of natural, technological, human and economic aspects were chosen: Puerto Rico, French Antilles (Martinique and Guadeloupe), Brazil, and French Guiana. The objective of this study was to identify the factors related to success or failure which are common to these four countries.

The study includes: background; the socio-economic context of oyster farming in Jamaica; economic and financial analysis; non-technical constraints to production; multi-occupationality; natural resource management and sustainable development; co-operatives; and the future of oyster farming in Jamaica.

"Shrimp farming in mangrove areas has grown dramatically in Asia and Latin America over the past decade. As a result, demand for resources required for farming, such as feed, seed, and clean water, has increased substantially. This study focuses on semi-intensive shrimp culture as practised on the Caribbean coast of Colombia. We estimate the spatial ecosystem support that is required to produce the food inputs, nursery areas, and clean water to the shrimp farms, as well as to process wastes. We also made an estimate of the natural and human-made resources necessary to run a typical semi-intensive shrimp farm. The results show that a semi-intensive shrimp farm needs a spatial ecosystem support - the ecological footprint - that is 35-190 times larger than the surface area of the farm. A typical shrimp farm such as this appropriates about 295 J of ecological work for each joule of edible shrimp protein produced. The corresponding figure for industrial energy is 40:1. More than 80% of the ecological primary production required to feed the shrimps is derived from external ecosystems.

In 1990, an area of 874-2 300 km² of mangrove was required to supply shrimp post-larvae to the farms in Colombia, corresponding to a total area equivalent to about 20%-50% of the country’s total mangrove area. The results were compared with similar estimates for other food production systems, particularly aquacultural ones. The comparison indicates that shrimp farming ranks as one of the most resource-intensive food production systems, characterizing it as an ecologically unsustainable throughput system. Based on the results, we discuss local, national, and regional appropriation of ecological support by the semi-intensive shrimp farms. Suggestions are made for how shrimp farming could be transformed into a food production system that is less environmentally degrading and less dependent on external support areas." [Abstract]

76. Leslie, M.D. 1990. Managing production costs - shrimp farming in Latin America. In: Aquaculture International, Congress Proceedings, Vancouver Trade and Convention Centre, Vancouver, British Columbia, Canada, September 4-7, 1990. [Procurement Director, Treasure Isle, Inc]

"To properly manage production costs in shrimp cultivation requires the formation and adherence to an effective standard operating procedure. Proper management practices will enable one to achieve more cost reduction than from any new piece of equipment or new hatchery design. Hatchery and pond production should not be designed to produce the most shrimp per area but rather to obtain the highest possible return on investment. Only by monitoring the details associated with proper cultivation practices can one effectively manage production costs." [Abstract]

In this estimate, the budget for the construction and start-up of a semi-intensive fish culture plant was established. Taking into account the commercial price of the fish species to be cultured, a possible profit calculation was made.

This paper describes the socio-economic characteristics of shrimp production in Mexico. Shrimp aquaculture is conducted under a cooperative system and the production of shrimp is legally reserved to cooperatives under the current land tenure system.

In this article, a cost/benefit analysis is conducted to determine the rate of return for the production of Oncorhyncus mykiss culture in the inland waters of Chile, using geothermal energy sources.

After initial efforts by the Government of Panama to develop a rural fish culture programme had limited success, the US Agency for International Development (AID) provided them with money to carry out a four-year pilot fish culture programme.

The main goals of the programme were: (i) to teach organized groups of poor rural people to manage the integrated systems by themselves; (ii) to focus on integrated production activities; (iii) to have multiple benefits for the rural poor; and (iv) to design a simple, practical technology that is compatible with micro-environmental and local community conditions" [from Introduction]

The four chapters of this book provide a technical evaluation, nutritional monitoring and evaluation, socio-economic considerations and economic evaluation as related to this project.

This study proposes to verify the economical viability on intensive fish culture experiments of Oreochromis niloticus males, by comparative analyses of the growth and biomass yield, considering two distinct periods of cultivation. Two experiments with male O. niloticus were performed in the Fish Culture Experimental Station of Pindamonhangaba-Fisheries Institute, S. Paulo, Brazil. Experiment I was realized from March/1980 to January/1981 and Experiment II, from September/1985 to July/1986. Conditions for both experiments were similar: 100 m² concrete ponds; 2 fishes/m² (stocking rate); balanced ration (25% crude protein) supplied daily (1.5% and 3.0% of the biomass during the wintering and the warming times, respectively). 25% of fish population from each pond were monthly taken for biometry. The average final weights of fishes were 572.0 g (Experiment I) and 588.8 g (Experiment II), with the production for both experiments being practically the same: 105.0 kg/100 m² . Economical analyses, considering only the ration expenses, showed profits of

$US 122.80 and $US 113.90 for Experiment I and II, respectively. The main conclusion of this study is that the special adaptation of O. niloticus in intensive fish culture in the Southeast Brazil region means that cultures of this species can be realized in different periods of the year, but the highest values of biomass with minimum values of apparent feed conversion coefficient are obtained in a shorter period of time when the culture was started in spring periods.

"Data on yield of artificial beds of Gracilaria established by anchoring thalli to sand-filled polyethylene tubes were used to carry out an economic assessment of three alternatives selected on the basis of capital investment, area planted, and plantation scheme. For each alternative, investment, operational cost, income, depreciation and amortization were determined. Sensitivity analyses were carried out to visualize the effects of the most relevant variables, namely, selling price, investment, annual yield and operational cost.

Capital investment ranged from $US 13 537 for a bed of 1 ha to $US 49 844 for a bed of 3 ha planted every three years. Annual average values for operating cost varied from $US 10 836 to $US 31 838, depending on the size of the bed and the plantation scheme. Average annual income ranged from $US 29 640 for 1 ha to $US 97 560 for 3 ha with a productive life of three years. For 3-ha beds, the cost of depreciation was notably higher during the first three years, while for beds of 1 ha this high impact extended only to the first two years. In addition, the cost of depreciation for 1 ha was about 28% of that estimated for 3-ha beds.

Profitability indicators showed that beds of 3 ha replanted every three years were the most profitable with a net present value of $US 175 917, an internal rate of return of 78.3%, a payback period of 1.5 years and a break-even point of 42%. Sensitivity analyses confirmed that the type of bed referred to above would be the most reliable alternative because, even at A 30% reduction in income, a net present value of $US 51 455, an internal rate of return of 35.4% and a payback period of 2.5 years could be attained.

It is shown that under the conditions chosen for the study, investment for the establishment of Gracilaria beds in northern and central-northern regions of Chile by anchoring thalli to sandfilled polyethylene tubes should be highly profitable." [Abstract]

Consumption of frog’s legs increases every year. Nearly all the trade is based on gathering in the wild. Frog breeding is difficult, but mass production of frogs appears economical. This paper summarizes the state-of-the-art in commercial-scale systems. At present, the most perfect farming techniques are being developed in Brazil and Argentina, where the full frog (Rana catesbeiana) is raised. These methods can be partly applied to European green frogs, but still there are many technical problems to solve before frogs are commercially produced.

Details are given of the biology and reproduction of Colossoma species in Latin America, describing also fish culture production in each of the following countries: Brazil, Colombia, Panama, Peru and Venezuela. Economic aspects, such as costs and returns, are considered as well as other aspects requiring further investigation to aid and improve culture of the species are indicated.

An examination is made of the current situation regarding rural aquaculture in Columbia, Costa Rica and El Salvador. The following aspects were covered in particular: classification of different types of rural aquaculture regarding beneficiaries, technology and socio-economic status; evolution of rural aquaculture in Latin America with respect to the prevailing political, economic and social factors in the region; the role of international organizations in this process; and an analysis of technical factors affecting the outcome of development projects. Recommendations for the future elaboration of projects aiming to develop rural aquaculture in the region are included.

In this paper all the aspects needed for the establishment of frog farming projects are reviewed. It was recognized that frog culture has reached some success because of the market conditions and also due to the rusticity and adaptability of the bull frog (Rana catesbeiana) to the culture conditions as well as its excellent yield. It also includes an analysis of the technical aspects of frog farming and of the different ways into which the production may be organized according to the experience of Uruguayan frog farmers, along with a brief study of the market conditions and the economical and financial results for different farm organization and marketing systems.

The problems and progress of the fisheries programme in El Salvador are discussed. It is said that farm fish culture in El Salvador is clearly in a pre-emergence stage, consumption of fish per capita is very low, and research has only begun to examine the various production possibilities for different areas of the country, despite favourable climatic conditions. This analysis highlights the need for further research and training for Salvadorean aquaculturists.

A review of the main characteristics of the shrimp production development in Estero Real is made with an emphasis on land use (extensive, semi-extensive and semi-intensive production systems under concession). A management/development programme for shrimp mariculture in the area is presented with target figures for 1994-1996, including: land allocation (cooperatives and private firms); hectareage; production; and various social impacts.

This presentation explores the social dimensions of shrimp mariculture. It addresses what we know about relationships between society and technology, and what forms of research need to be carried out in the future. The focus is on the social problems that surround the transfer of technology from one society to another. Examples are drawn from shrimp mariculture production in Ecuador. All aquaculture technology has a hidden dimension, including: (i) people’s notion of, and attitudes toward, a kind of technology; (ii) the social and political environment surrounding the use of that technology; and (iii) people’s expectations about the future prospects of the technology, and the social economy as a whole.

"In the past ten years (1975-85), shrimp mariculture has become Ecuador’s second most important industry, generating some $US 225 million in foreign exchange (up to 95% is exported to the USA) and 150 000 jobs. A handful of biological analyses of the shrimp industry and its relationship to coastal ecology have appeared in the past (Barniol, undated.; Cun and Marin, 1982; Weidner, 1985; and Mock, 1981). However, the absence of social and economic data has mitigated their value for an understanding of both economic development and coastal resource management. Our goal is to describe the social economy of shrimp mariculture in Ecuador, illustrating how cultural concepts and institutions orient production. In so doing, we take issue with two common views about export industries in developing countries: (i) that an industry’s value can be measured by the dollar value of exports; and (ii) that the structure of export markets determines the internal structure of the export-directed industry." [Introduction]

"The paper examines the applicability of First World coastal zone management (CZM) policy for the Third World by focusing on Ecuador’s shrimp mariculture, an industry whose explosive growth has reshaped the coastal zone and generated problems threatening loss of the resource base itself. This has led to a recognized need for CZM and the movement by development agencies to transfer the CZ policies of developed countries. Against this background, the analysis explores local concepts of investment and conservation, the role of government and law, and the influence of the social economy on mariculture development. It illuminates how local use and management of coastal resources is inseparable from specifically Ecuadorean cultural concepts, institutions, and practices. This places in relief the salient differences between management in the First and Third worlds, illuminating how coastal zone management must not only be internally consistent, but cognizant of and integrated into the prevailing social, economic, and political conditions." [Abstract]

Selected structural and situational factors that affect decision-making and the continued operation of community-managed fishponds are described, based on data from 22 pilot projects in communities in central Panama. Community factionalism, property rights, social status differences and the role of leadership are examined in terms of the viability of group farming and the long-term sustainability of community-managed enterprises.

The actual state of the prawn culture industry in Peru is analyzed. It was recognized that this industry is going through an economic crisis because of three factors: (i) the production costs have become unsustainable; (ii) prawn prices in the international market have fallen; and (iii) high tax rates are imposed on prawn culture. A brief review of the international market, the joint adventures realized in other countries and of other economic aspects, is presented. Finally, some recommendations for the improvement of the actual crisis are presented, such as the financing of this activity with open credits, the establishment of tax exemptions on this industry, its equipment and machinery importation, and a greater simplification of its administrative aspects.

Promoting the integration of aquaculture into agricultural production systems to intensify food production without degrading the environment appears to be a promising option for small farmers in developing countries. For the adoption of novel production systems, however, economic considerations are the main driving force. The farmer has to be convinced of the long and short-term benefits and profits of different farming systems’ options. The potential farmer-aquaculturist needs a site-specific holistic information package of different production options (as contrasted with packages of technology only), in order to combine traditional knowledge with modern scientific results. These all-embracing data packages for possible production systems must take into account: the environmental conditions; the availability and price of the stocking material for aquaculture and of farm animals and seeds; seasonal farm and off-farm labour demands; and the socio-economic situation of the farmer and the neighbourhood. The possible production intensities, profits and risks have to be quantified, and the impacts on the environment, the family and the society have to be determined. Such information would serve as a guideline for the selection of management options which are best suited for his/her farming system and would allow for a choice of alternatives in case of unforeseen events.

In the last fourteen years the production of seaweeds in Chile has ranged from 74 000 to 229 000 wet mt/yr and has included about twenty species belonging to Phaeophyta and Rhodophyta. The only source of this production has been the exploitation of natural beds, except for Gracilaria, which is the only case of commercial cultivation and contributes significant quantities to total production. Initially, most of the raw material was exported but currently important quantities of Gracilaria and several carrageenophytes are being processed by local industry. Changes in production of the main resources are analyzed with consideration of the potential demand, level of knowledge about natural beds, and the situation of total Gracilaria farming, in order to attempt predictions for the supply. The current possibilities of applying new technologies to cultivate other economically important Chilean seaweeds are also analyzed and discussed.

La actividad acuícola en Ecuador se inició a comienzos de la década de los 70, con el desarrollo del cultivo del camarón. Entre 1983 y 1987 nuestro país fue el principal productor de camarón cultivado del mundo.

La industria camaronera es una de las principales productores de divisas y en 1991 generó ingresos equivalentes a 490 millones de dólares estadounidenses (US$). Es una actividad dirigida exclusivamente por el sector privado, con inversiones durante la última década de aproximadamente $US 15.000 millones (Anónimo 1989) y se estima que 120.000 trabajadores a tiempo completo y a tiempo parcial son empleados por la industria (LiPuma y Meltzoff, 1986). El documento presenta y describe algunas de las especies acuáticas que al momento podrían desarrollarse a escala comercial de la cuales se presenta la ostra del pacífico (Crassotrea gigas) y la concha de avanico (Argopecten circularis), dentro de las otras especies que deben considerarse la ostra de roca (Crassotrea columbiensis), la ostión de mangle (Crassotrea iridisens), la concha prieta (Anadara tuberculosa) y las otras perlíferas (Pinctata mazatanica y Perna sterna).

Dentro de las posibilidades de peces estan el red fish (Scianops ocellatus), el leguado (Paralichthys sp.) el dorado (Coryphaena hippurus) y el Robalo (Centropomus sp.). En los crustáceos los que tiene potencial tenemos la jaiba, el camarón de agua dulce y crawfish.

In this paper, a review of the economic factors affecting the artisanal production of shrimp in Estero Real in Nicaragua (i.e., extensive production systems) is conducted, determining financial indicators.

"In the framework of French-Brazil cooperation, the French Institute of Research for Exploitation of the Sea (IFREMER), the State of Bahia and the company Littoral Sul Maricultura have developed a new technique for shrimp (Penaeus vannamei) farming using floating cages. After trials carried out during three years, this technique turns out to be very interesting from several viewpoints. The production yield from the cages is above 20 t/ha, the negative effects on the environment quality are weak and local fishermen have proved eager to adopt this technique as a part-time activity. At the same time, a technco-economic analysis (using a computerized simulation tool as well as a market analysis) has been carried out in the State of Bahia, in order to assess the feasibility of such a project and to help research and development decisions. Despite low first investment and good biological results, the ex-farm production cost of shrimps ranging from 16 to 18 g is as high as $US 4.5 /kg. The price is due to the low productivity of the labour and to the cost of nets which have a short lifespan. It is possible to consider this activity as profitable in the market of Salvador de Bahia. Nevertheless, the question is how to face the international competition, which is particularly strong in the case of tropical shrimps. The conditions allowing enterprises to develop a strategy based on product quality and environmentally friendliness are reviewed." [Abstract]

The findings are presented of a study on the application of economic engineering in the analysis of techno-economic factors relating to aquaculture. The data obtained are examined with relation to investment and production costs involved in the various stages of aquaculture. The findings are considered with respect to the situation in Latin American countries, where there is a scarcity of basic economic information, which is an essential requirement for increasing investment in the aquaculture sector.

The paper studies the Peruvian artisanal fishery and evaluates its different components, namely: fisheries in continental waters, aquaculture activities and marine artisanal fisheries. It describes the problems of the fishermen: poor marketing and trade; no access to a social security system; poor quality of life; no access to health services; very low income; no electricity nor communications; very little drinkable water; difficult access to education; and very high rates of death at work.

A discussion is presented on the basic economic and planning aspects related to the formulation of aquaculture projects. The various stages involved in the formulation of an aquaculture project are outlined, emphasizing the factors to be taken into account before project design, including the preliminary identification of the market, the construction of a technological outline and a preliminary evaluation of economic viability.

"The purpose of this paper is to describe the fish production technologies and strategies implemented in Guatemala from 1982 to 1989 to promote their adoption by low-income farmers." [from article]

In 1979, the Government of Jamaica and the US Agency for International Development (AID) funded a project to assist the development of warmwater fish culture on the island of Jamaica. This report outlines the growth of commercial farming of tilapia during the first four years of that project. Included are descriptions of the economics of small-scale tilapia farming and the marketing of farm-raised tilapia.

This paper presents a primarily techno-economic (income and costs) analysis of polyculture in three climatic zones of Huila in Colombia.

"This paper will focus on selected financial considerations for financial institutions, economic development agencies, individual investors, private aquaculture developers and others used in evaluating the financial feasibility of proposed aquaculture ventures, including projects in the Caribbean region." [from article]

111. Rodriguez, G. 1994. Procesamiento artesanal e industrial del pescado de aguas continentales y la utilización de los desechos. In: 4a Reunión del Grupo de Trabajo sobre Tecnología Pesquera, Cartagena, Colombia, May 25-31, 1992. Rome, Italy, FAO Commission for Inland Fisheries of Latin America. No. 476, Supl. pp. 23-44.

The processing of fish from aquaculture in Cuba is carried out using artisanal and semi-artisanal techniques. Products which may be obtained include whole fresh fish, whole frozen fish, frozen headed and gutted fish, frozen filleted fish, salted fish and minced fish. The economic limitations of the country have hindered the introduction of modern technology to diversify the range of products and improve work conditions. The utilization of processing wastes is considered a necessity to lower costs and also protect the environment from contamination.

To determine the economics of artificial upwelling mariculture the clam Tapes japonica was grown over a 12-month period in the St. Croix system, operated in pilot-plant fashion. Seawater from a depth of 870 m was pumped continuously into ponds (100 m², 1 m deep) onshore. The ponds were inoculated with the diatom Chaetoceros curvisetus (STX 167), which was grown in continuous culture and pumped to a T. japonica production line. The system produced 81 kg of phytoplankton protein, and 423 kg (whole wet weight) of clams in 12 months, corresponding to a yield of 8.1 t plant protein, and 42.3 t/ha/yr of clams. An aquaculture budget generator was developed to predict costs of artificial upwelling mariculture systems of different sizes. [In: Hanfman, D.T., Tibbitt, S., Watts, C. and Alston, D. Aquaculture in the Caribbean Basin: a bibliography (1970-1988)]

For practical convenience, dry feeds (90% DM) are becoming necessary for the growing Chilean turbot (Scophthalmus maximus) production, to replace moist feeds (55% DM) which are based on fresh/frozen fish. To explore the possibility of producing dry feeds locally, an experiment was conducted including the following diets: (i) foreign, a formulation from abroad, containing some imported and expensive ingredients; (ii) local, replacing three of the most expensive components; (iii) commercial, a closed formula made by an international feed manufacturer; and (iv) moist, based on fresh/frozen fish, presently used at the Production Centre. Each diet was tested in two tanks with 132 fish of 80.64 plus or minus 7.73 g initial body weight. Tanks made of black PVC, with a covering plastic net, having a capacity of 2.54 m³, and a 21 l/min water flow were used. During a two-week adjustment period, all fish were fed daily rations of all four feeds. The fish were fed to satiety in five daily feedings from June to November. From November to March, a sub-treatment of restricted feeding was introduced. One group of each pair per treatment received 65% of the intake recorded the preceding week by the other group fed the same diet. Weight gains were good with all feeds, reaching an average of 40% per month. Fish fed the foreign and moist feeds had significantly higher weight gains than those receiving the local and commercial diets. There were no differences between both replicates. The 65% level of feed restriction decreased the weight gain of fish fed the foreign and moist feeds only, not affecting the performance of the other two groups. Even with these fish maintained in small tanks, feed conversion was greatly influenced by feeding rate, which has important economic implications. With the prices prevailing in December 1991, feed costs per kg weight gain were $US 0.58, 0.49, 0.81 and 0.37 for feeds 1 to 4, respectively. This made moist feeds still a cheaper alternative, with logistical complications. The use of imported ingredients resulted in better economic results, even though it resulted in reduced weight gains.

The manual arises from a joint Mexican and British research and development programme into the potential of the native Mexican cichlid (Cichlasoma urophthalmus) for aquaculture in Central and South America. It consists of a state-of-the-art technical manual of Cichlasoma biology and culture based on project results, and contains the following chapters: (i) introduction; (ii) species introductions and the case for culture of native species; (iii) the identification and selection of Cichlasoma species for aquaculture; (iv) reproductive biology and mass rearing technology; (v) environmental physiology of C. urophthalmus; (vi) nutrition and feeding of C. urophthalmus; (vii) diseases and their treatment; (viii) on-growing methods for C. urophthalmus; and (ix) the economics of C. urophthalmus culture.

"New mariculture technologies that use ‘appropriate’ technology or rely on the natural productivity of the oceans to supply feed sources for seafood farming in coastal waters are being developed. These technologies may be feasible for small-scale commercial mariculture projects implemented by fishermen-farmers in developing countries. The article presents research data regarding the economic and social feasibility of the adoption of a new mariculture technology by artisanal fishermen in two small fishing villages in Antigua and the Dominican Republic in the Caribbean. The technology involves growing algae on offshore screens and feeding it to Caribbean spider crabs (Mithrax spinosissimus) raised in offshore cages. The research indicates that the adoption of crab mariculture by fishing crews is feasible because they have requisite values, skills, corporate resources, market relationships, and territorial rights. However, fishing crews may lack start-up capital and may require visible evidence of technological feasibility before adoption. If fishermen make a commitment to mariculture, their new activity may conflict with other relationships in their villages and they may catch fewer subsistence fish for local and urban markets." [Abstract]

With a total production of 223 626 t and 1.5% of the world production in 1988, the importance of aquaculture in Latin America is minor. Only when intended for export has production increased, especially evident in salmonid production in Chile and shrimp production in Ecuador. Interest in culturing endemic fish species has increased significantly; however, production has seldom progressed beyond the pilot stage and is still of no economic importance. Information on mollusc culture potential indicates excellent conditions along the Pacific coast, but this depends upon marketing methods and seeking new markets. The exploitation of marine algae is an important factor in the economies of several Latin American countries. Therefore, it is very desirable to continue cultivation attempts of some species; better exploitation through coordinated planning would certainly help aquaculture in Latin America economically.

"This report investigates the technical and financial feasibility of establishing trout egg production units in the sierra region of Ecuador. Given the country’s geographical position, it is concluded that different stocks of trout will be able to spawn throughout the year, thus filling a supply gap of eight months in the northern hemisphere trout production countries.

The financial results are favourable, with an initial rate of return of 259 (in dollar terms) for a farm with an annual production level of 20 million eggs.

A number of technical problems need to be overcome, especially restricting the entry of broodstock into the country (to prevent disease and allow certification) and training specialists in hatchery production techniques. However, Ecuador does possess adequate supplies of spring water." [Abstract]

The objectives of the queen conch (Strombus gigas) research programme at the Rosenstiel School of Marine and Atmospheric Science have been: (i) to develop cost-effective methods for hatchery production of queen conch juveniles; and (ii) to investigate possibilities for intensive ‘grow-out’ of captive queen conch populations and extensive re-stocking of natural queen conch populations. This paper summarizes progress made in the development of hatchery methods. While it remains to be shown conclusively that re-stocking natural conch populations with hatchery produced juveniles benefits the fishery, the biological and economic outlook for a large-scale queen conch hatchery is excellent. [In: Hanfman, D.T.; Tibbitt, S.; Watts, C. and Alston, D Aquaculture in the Caribbean Basin: a bibliography (1970-1988)]

This article discusses the economic value of seaweeds in St. Lucia and the efforts by the International Development Research Centre of Ottawa, Canada, to diversify the fisheries in St. Lucia to include more seaweed cultivation.

Fish culture has been chosen as a tool for economic development by the Government of Jamaica. The present report is based on a study conducted in 1978, and discusses alternatives for fish culture and the development potential for fish culture in the country. The constraints which may limit the effectiveness of any aquaculture development programme, are discussed, including the problems of labour supply, the availability of suitable land, water and managerial expertise, and marketing infrastructure.

A fisheries resource inventory for El Salvador is presented, with brief descriptions of the fisheries and aquaculture. Monetary inputs for operation and investment, made available by the Government of El Salvador, has been an important factor. New facilities now operational have included a hatchery and an experimental station at Izalco. A re-organization of the responsible authority, to become the Fisheries Resource Directorate of the Renewable Natural Resources Ministry, is proposed. Problem areas are described. Recommendations for intensification of training and for economic studies to be conducted are presented.

El presente documento no pretende abarcar todos los aspectos de la evaluación de proyectos acuicolas, sino establecer un marco de referencia en el que se aborden los mas importantes del entorno financiero.

Los indicadores financieros que se tratan en este estudio tienen una aplicación general para todos los análisis de perinversión. El ejercicio asumido para desarrollar la evaluación financiera esta basado en el ejemplo de la ooperación de un laboratorio de producción de postlarvas de camarón, con un programa de producción basado en la creciente utilización de la capacidad del laboratorio y en la creciente experiencia del personal operativo.

The findings presented are of a socio-economic study carried out on the production, distribution and consumption of fishery and aquaculture products in Bolivia. An account is given of the current production system, describing supply and demand, distribution in the Amazon, Altiplano and Plata regions, marketing costs and processing techniques. Mathematical models are used to make an economic analysis of factors affecting the consumption of fish products. Recommendations are given of measures to be conducted to improve the organization of the distribution system as well as the technology of fish processing.

The main purpose of this study is to undertake an initial assessment of the shrimp mariculture industry and explore the feasibility of mariculture diversification in Ecuador, and to assist the uri/aid coastal Area Management Project (PMRC) in developing a policy strategy which promotes the diversification of mariculture in the country. The main focus of this report addresses the current issues faced by the shrimp culture industry, a detailed description of which is provided in the appendices.

The economically viable hatchery production of (on average) two million Argopecten purpuratus seed from six producers during the last high season has been possible due to the development of new improvements on existing technologies to handle the seed from metamorphic larvae until the 20 mm-size range. The life-cycle of scallops from metamorphic larvae is completed in the open ocean, and therefore, it is a necessary condition to monitor seed status to obtain a suitable number of physiological robust seed. Our production-related decisions are made by the enforcement of an at least twice-per-week diving regime. The most frequent causes of mortality or loss of seed are detachment, excess sedimentation, predation and bad handling.

Mussel (Mytilus edulis) culture is one of the most widespread aquaculture activities in Chile. An examination is made of the economics of a marine culture farm dedicated to the culture of mussels, with experience from the Yaldal Station of the Universidad Austral in Chile during 1987. Details of the infrastructure of the farm and a cost analysis are provided. Economic aspects of marketing and the distribution chain are also covered.

This paper discusses the promotion of mollusc aquaculture as an alternative source of employment for artisanal fisheries in Peru.

Production costs are high in Peru compared to many other shrimp producing countries, largely because the Government provides no economic subsidy or support. Furthermore, during the last few years, Peruvian exporters of shrimp have suffered from chronically low foreign exchange rates. To generate profits under these conditions, Peruvian shrimp farmers must use their resources efficiently and control the yield from inputs. Feeding trays are helping to make this possible.

"Colombia has emerged as a major Latin American producer of cultured shrimp. The industry’s expansion has occurred in only a few years. Colombia had no commercial shrimp culture operations as recently as 1983. The earliest growers encountered serious difficulties, primarily because they simply attempted to transfer Ecuadorean designs and grow-out systems. Although harvests are still small by world standards, current trends suggest that Columbia will become an important world producer during the 1990s." [from article]

This article provides a general overview of the industry in Colombia, discussing such factors as growing conditions; methods; yields and costs; feed; postlarval supply; harvests; the Government’s role; credit; technical capability; disease; and outlook.

Peru has developed an important shrimp culture industry. The country has many of the same environmental conditions as neighbouring Ecuador, the region’s most important shrimp producer. Suitable sites and climate, however, are restricted to a small area along the northern coast. Growers, following developments in Ecuador, began experimenting with shrimp in 1971 and opened the first commercial farms in 1975. The industry has since grown considerably, reaching harvests of 5 000 t in 1990. Some growers are intensifying pond management and improving yields. Many, however, are reporting sharply increased production costs, which have forced some growers to neglect ponds. In addition, Peru’s serious economic problems may slow the industry’s expansion. Harvests are unlikely to exceed 10 000 t by the year 2000.

This report contains the findings of two missions. One mission visited Uruguay and Argentina, the other covered Chile, Ecuador and Peru. The report on Uruguay and Argentina starts with a brief overview of the fishing industry and the scope of fisheries and aquaculture research. Subsequent sections describe the organization of research, paying special attention to issues such as funding and prioritization. Furthermore, the impact of research on the fishing and aquaculture industries of Uruguay and Argentina are assessed. General conclusions and recommendations are also presented. The studies of Chile, Ecuador and Peru begin with a brief overview of the state of fisheries and aquaculture in the area. This is followed by an analysis of research capabilities in these three countries, an examination of the opportunities for enhancing the contributions of research to the economic and social progress of the sector, and a summary of the conclusions of the mission.

The author reviews the history of salmonid culture in Chile, with a discussion on the present status of the industry, aquaculture economics, regulations, fish health, genetics and diets.