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CHAPTER 3g: ALPHABETICAL LIST OF PLANT FAMILIES
WITH INSECTICIDAL AND FUNGICIDAL PROPERTIES
| RANUNCULACEAE
Nigella sativa L. (Roman Coriander, Nutmeg Flower, Faux Cumin, Quatre Épices, Toute Épice, Schwarzkummel, Black Cumin)
|
 |
Grieve, 1974; Akgül and Kivanç, 1988 |
| Description | Small annual; erect, branching stem; leaves deeply cut, greyish-green; terminal greyish-blue flowers. Compressed seeds, usually three-cornered, two sides flat, one convex, black or brown externally, strong aromatic odour like nutmeg. | Grieve, 1974 |
| Habitat | Ranges from East Mediterranean to Northeast India; cultivated in Burma. | Perry, 1980 |
| Uses | Seeds used to mix with unpalatable
drugs and alone as medicine in Malaysia, India, Burma and Indonesia.
Seeds used as seasoning. |
Perry, 1980 |
| Lipid extract of seeds | Contact insecticidal activity of oleic and linoleic acid (isolated from seeds) was determined against adult B. chinensis. LD50 = 0.435 percent (v/v) and 0.43 percent (v/v) respectively. | Deshpande, et al. 1974 |
| Constituents | Seeds contain a volatile oil (1.3 percent) and a fixed oil (35 percent), and an amorphous glucoside called melanthin. |
| RUTACEAE
Aegle marmelos (L.) Correa
|
 |
Rehm and Espig, 1991
|
| Description | Tree growing up to 9-12 m high; fruit globular/oval, hard shell, divided internally like an orange. | Wren, 1975 |
| Habitat | Cultivated mostly in India, the homeland of the tree. | Rehm and Espig, 1991 |
| Uses | Fruits eaten fresh, processed
into drinks, or cut into slices and dried.
The fruit, leaves and roots are all used in traditional medicine. |
Rehm and Espig, 1991
|
| Dried leaves | Two percent (w/w) admixed with
paddy rice reduced damage by natural infestations in a store by 50 percent
over a 270-day trial.
Two percent (w/w) admixed with rice reduced the level of damage caused
by natural insect infestations in a store during a six month storage period
to 2 percent compared with 10 percent in the untreated control. The main
pests were S. cerealella, R. dominica and S. oryzae. Two percent (w/w) admixed with paddy rice had no significant effect on
the development of eggs of |
Prakash, et al. 1982
Prakash, et al. 1983
|
| Constituents | Include: aegeline and marmeline.
|
Southon and Buckingham, 1988
Perry, 1980 |
| RUTACEAE
Citrus aurantifolia (Christm.) Swingle. (Lime, Lima, Saure Limette)
|
|
Rehm and Espig, 1991 |
| Description | An evergreen shrub or much branched tree up to 5 m in height, many sharp spines on stems and beside leaves; aromatic leaves, 6-8 cm long, oval in shape; leaf stalk with narrow "wing", an extra leafy growth, edge smooth or round-toothed. Flowers white, 1-7 in a leaf axil, each about 2 cm across. Fruit round or oval, to 6 cm in diameter but usually smaller, thin, green or yellow peel, difficult to remove; pulp green, very acidic. | Bekele-Tesemma, 1993 |
| Habitat | Originates from Southeast Asia (India to Japan and Indonesia); spread to almost all parts of the world; prefers warm tropical climates; main producers are the West Indies and Mexico. | Rehm and Espig, 1991 |
| Uses | Edible fruit; juice, concentrate
and dried products utilised by soft drinks companies. Peel can be used to
produce pectin and aromatic citrus peel oils. Aromatic oil also produced
from the leaves. Other by-products include the citrus kernel oils and the
medicinally useful flavonoids hesperidin and naringin.
Fruit and leaves are used in traditional medicine. |
Rehm and Espig, 1991
|
| Peel | Dried peel at 0.20 g/50 seeds
reduced percentage hatch of C. maculatus eggs.
5 ml/kg admixed with cowpea was ineffective at inducing adult mortality in C. rhodesianus or reducing Fl production. 7 ml/kg oil treated grain caused 100 percent mortality in adult C. maculatus after an exposure period of one hour but all activity was lost after 24 hours. |
Rajapakse, 1990
|
| Constituents | Limonene was regarded as the major
volatile component.
Major fractions of peel oil include: monoterpenes (76 percent), sesquiterpenes (3.8 percent), oxygen containing compounds (18.1 percent) such as aldehydes, esters and alcohols. |
Giga and Munetsi, 1990 Don-Pedro, 1996b |
| Toxicity | d-limonene has been determined
to inhibit mammary tumours in rats.
d-limonene increased activity of a detoxifying enzyme (glutathione S-transferase or GST) when given orally to mice. Increased activity of GST enhances the host’s ability to detoxify carcinogens. |
Lam and Zheng, 1991
Lam and Zheng, 1991 |
| RUTACEAE
Citrus limon (L.) Burm.f. (Lemon, Citron, Zitrone)
|
|
Rehm and Espig, 1991
|
| Description | Medium-sized tree, open and spreading;
almost thornless.
Several varieties, varying in size, juice content and thickness of rind. |
Graf, 1986
Wren, 1975 |
| Habitat | Originates from Southeast Asia (India to Japan and Indonesia); spread to almost all parts of the world; adapted to relatively low temperatures; widely cultivated in Mediterranean countries and the United States. | Rehm and Espig, 1991 |
| Uses | As for Citrus aurantifolia. | Rehm and Espig, 1991 |
| Leaf powder | Two percent (w/w) admixed with wheat reduced the percentage of damage caused by T. granarium larvae to 18 percent, compared with 70 percent in the untreated control four months after introduction of the larvae. At six months, damage was 38 percent in the treated wheat and 90 percent in the control. | Jood, et al. 1993 |
| Antifungal activity | 2 000 mg/kg of lemon oil in grapefruit juice suppressed growth and toxin production of A. parasiticus after an incubation period of seven days. 300 mg/kg of oil in a glucose-yeast extract medium were need to achieve the same result. | Alderman and Marth, 1976 |
| Constituents | The four major components isolated
from lemon peel oil using hexane are: 5,7-dimethoxy-2H-1-benzopyran-2-one;
9-[(3,7-dimethyl-2,6-octadienyl) oxy]-7H-furol3,2-g]-[1] benzopyran-7-one;4-[(3,7-dimethyl-2,6-odadienyl)
oxy]-7H-furo[3,2-g][1] benzopyran-7-one ; and 5-[(3,7-dimethyl-2,6-octadienyl)oxy]-7-methoxy-2H-1-benzopyran-2-one.
The insecticidal potency of these compounds was less than the potency of the original oil when bioassayed against S. oryzae and C. maculatus. The last three compounds showed the greatest toxicity. Steam-volatile constituents include limonene (63.9 percent), b -pinene (12.2 percent) and g -terpinene (6.7 percent). |
Su and Horvat, 1987
Regnault-Rogers, et al. 1993 |
| RUTACEAE
Citrus paradisi Macfad. (Grapefruit, Pomelo) |
|
Rehm and Espig, 1991
|
| Description | Spreading tree with large leaves on broad petioles; fruit is pale lemon in colour, 10-14 cm in diameter. | Graf, 1986 |
| Habitat | Originates in the West Indies; now widely cultivated. | Uphof, 1968 |
| Uses | As for Citrus aurantifolia. | Rehm and Espig, 1991; Perry, 1980 |
| Peel | 0.25 percent (w/w) applied to wheat caused 94 percent mortality in adult S. granarius within 16 days compared to 24 percent mortality in the controls; it significantly reduced the production of F1 progeny. | El-Ghar and El- Sheikh, 1987 |
| RUTACEAE
Citrus sinensis (L.) Osbeck (Sweet orange, Naranja, Apfelsine)
|
|
Rehm and Espig, 1991
|
| Description | An evergreen shrub or tree, up to 12 m high; twigs angled when young, often with thick spines. Leaves are oval, 5-15 cm long and 2-8 cm wide, shiny dark green above; stalk narrowly winged. Flowers very fragrant, one or many in a leaf axil, 2-3 cm across, five white petals, stamens in groups, style with round stigma. Fruit rather variable in colour and shape, rounded green-yellow-orange, 4-12 cm in diameter, relatively thin skin, hard to remove. | Bekele-Tesemma, 1993 |
| Habitat | Sicily, West Indies and West Africa; widely cultivated in the sub-tropics. | Uphof, 1968 |
| Uses | As for Citrus aurantifolia. | Rehm and Espig, 1991; Perry, 1980 |
| Dried peel | Peel admixed with cowpea and dried fish chips produced an LD50 of 4 percent (w/w) for C. maculatus and 14 percent (w/w) for D. maculatus. In repellency trials, 10 percent (w/w) admixed with cowpeas or fish chips repelled both insect species. At 18 percent (w/w) on fish chips, larval emergence of D. maculatus was reduced by 60 percent; only 37 percent of the larvae developed into adults compared with 88 percent in the untreated controls. | Don Pedro, 1985 |
| Dried leaves | Three percent (w/w) admixed with wheat reduced oviposition (3.7 eggs), adult emergence (9.7 insects) and prolonged development of R. dominica (52.2 days) with regards to the control (17.1 eggs, 77.3 insects and 40 days respectively). | Singh, et al. 1996 |
| Antifungal activity | 2 000 mg/kg of orange oil in grapefruit
juice suppressed growth and toxin production of
A. parasiticus after an incubation period of seven days. 300 mg/kg of oil in a glucose-yeast extract medium were needed to achieve the same result. |
Alderman and Marth, 1976 |
| Constituents | Include citacridone, citbrasine and noradrenaline. | Duke, 1985 |
| RUTACEAE
Limonia acidissima aut. non L.
|
 |
|
| Description | Small tree up to 6-9 m high; grey bark, shallow furrows; spines 1.2-3 cm long, strong and straight. Leaves alternate and in axils in clusters of 2-4, glaborous. Panicles many flowered; calyx small with triangular lobes; fruit 4-8 cm in diameter. | Bennet, 1979 |
| Habitat | Widespread in tropical regions of India and Sri Lanka. | Bandara, et al. 1989 |
| Uses | Powdered bark used as a cosmetic in Burma, leaves used to treat eplilepsy, roots as a purgative, and the fruit as a tonic. | Perry, 1980 |
| Petroleum ether extract of bark
|
Mung bean coated with a thin film
of extract prevented oviposition by adult C. chinensis for two days
after application.
Mung bean coated with a thin film of extract reduced oviposition of adult C. chinensis by 65 percent for two days after application, compared to untreated control. |
Bandara, et al. 1989
|
| Constituents
|
Bergapten and psoralen were isolated
from the leaf extract. Bergapten has also been isolated from root bark.
0.1 mg/g of bergapten admixed with mung bean prevented the emergence od adult C. chinensis. |
Bandara, et al. 1989
Bandara, et al. 1989 |
| RUTACEAE
Zanthoxylum alatum Roxb. syn. Z. armatum DC. (Prickly ash, Tejbal, Tumru, Hua-jiao, Timur) |
Photograph unavailable
|
Perry, 1980
|
| Description | A shrub or small tree, all parts aromatic, branches and stem prickly, the older with corky base. Leaves unequally pinnate, leafage of 2-6 pairs, lanceolate, glabrous beneath. Petiole and rachis usually winged, petiole with two stipular prickles at base. Flowers small, yellow in lax panicles, 5-15 cm long, glabrous or pubescence. | Verma, et al. 1993 |
| Habitat | China, Taiwan and Indo-China. | Perry, 1980 |
| Uses | This is used as flavouring in
cooking and as an anthelminthic. In Nepal, seed oil and crush seeds are
added to cereal seeds and legumes to protect against damage by stored grain
pests.
Fruit, root and seed are all utilised in traditional medicine. |
Gyawali, 1993
|
| Acetone extract of dried pericarp | 340 m /cm2 on filter paper produced 53 percent (Class lll) repellency against T. confusum adults one month after treatment; repellency declined to 44 percent (Class lll) two months after treatment. The extract admixed at 5 percent (w/w) to food media caused no oral toxicity in S. oryzae adults and C. maculatus larvae when applied as a commodity treatment. | Su, 1984 |
| Constituents | Includechelelactam, fagarine,
haplopine, nitidine, robustine, sanguinarine.
Essential oil (obtained from seed) reported to contain: 1-a
-phellandrene, linalol and sesquiterpene. |
Southon and Buckingham, 1988
Perry, 1980 |
| SIMARUBACEAE
Quassia africana Baill.
|
 |
Uphof, 1968 |
| Description | Shrubby tree; leaves odd-pinnate with stalk and axis to 30 cm long; leafage 1-7, elongate, elliptic, pellicular, sessile. | Bloszyk, 1995 |
| Habitat | Tropical Africa from Nigeria to Angola; growing swampy, forest areas. | Uphof, 1968 |
| Uses | All parts of plant used medicinally. | Daziel, 1937 |
| Chloroform and methanol extracts | Methanol extract of petioles showed
antifeedant activity against adults of S. granarius and larvae of
T. granarium after an exposure period of five days.
Chloroform extract of leaves showed antifeedant activity against adults and larvae of T. confusum after an exposure period of five days. |
Bloszyk, 1995
Bloszyk, 1995 |
|
SOLANACEAE Capsicum annuum L. (Cayenne Pepper, Red Bell Pepper) |
|
Rehm and Espig 1991
|
| Description | An early, mildly pungent chilli pepper with tapering ends, dark green fruits. Up to 15-20 cm long, turning scarlet when ripe. | Bown, 1995 |
| Habitat | Widely cultivated in tropical and subtropical countries. | Rehm and Espig 1991 |
| Uses | The whole dried fruits of this culinary pepper are used as a traditional grain protectant in West Africa and in traditional medicine. | Ivbijaro and Agbaje 1986 |
| Dry powder | Admixture of 1.5 g/20 g cowpea
caused 46 percent mortality in adult C. maculatus within 48h and
reduced F1 production by 45 percent.
10 g/4 kg admixed with cowpea significantly reduced the percentage weight loss (0.78 percent) caused by C. maculatus with respect to the control (11.6 percent) after six months storage. |
Ivbijaro and Agbaje 1986
|
| Crude ethanol extract of leaves | Topical application of 1 ml of extract (10 percent w/v) caused 100 percent adult mortality in T. confusum after a five day exposure period. | Williams and Mansingh, 1993 |
| Constituents | Fruits are reported to contain
capsicine, capsaicine, capsanthine, capsorubine, carotene and carotenoids.
Fruit contains the irritant, capsaicin (0.14 percent). |
Perry, 1980
|
| Toxicity | Dried fruit, even smoke from fruits,
is irritant to the mucous membranes. Capsaicin stimulates salivation and
sweating.
Rats fed a protein-deficient diet containing 10 percent chilli peppers produced a 54 percent incidence of hepatomas. |
Duke, 1985
Duke, 1985 |
| SOLANACEAE
Capsicum frutescens L. (Bird pepper, Tabasco) |
Photograph unavailable
|
Oliver-Bever 1986
|
| Description | Bushy perennial plant, with elliptic leaves up to 4 cm long; fruits very pungent. | Bown, 1995 |
| Habitat | Widely cultivated in tropical
and sub-tropical countries.
Sierra Leone, Madagascar, Japan and Tropical America. |
Rehm and Espig 1991
|
| Uses | This small, very hot red pepper is used for culinary purposes and as a traditional medicine. | Ivbijaro and Agbaje, 1986 |
| Dry powder
|
Admixture of 1.5g/20g cowpea caused
30 percent mortality in adult C. maculatus and reduced F1 production
of 60 percent.
Admixture of 2 percent (w/w) with cowpea did not significantly decrease oviposition or adult emergence of C. maculatus after 10 days or percentage weight loss after 70 days when compared to the control. |
Ivbijaro and Agbaje, 1986
|
| Constituents | Include capsaicin, also called capsicin. | Ayensu, 1981 |
| Toxicity | Capsaicin and chilli extracts
showed evidence of mutagenicity in the Ames test, although neither induced
point mutations in mammalian cells in vitro. Capsaicin caused cytogenetic
damage in the bone marrow, and inhibited DNA synthesis in the testes, in
mice given high doses by intraperitoneal injection.
Intraperitoneal injection of 1.6 mg/kg/body weight into albino mice did not affect sperm production or development, nor did it induce dominant-lethal mutations. |
BIBRA, 1989
|
| SOLANACEAE
Lycopersicon esculentum Mill. (Tomato, Tomate, Jitomate)
|
|
Rehm and Espig 1991
|
| Description | Fleshy, strong smelling; hairy foliage; red/yellow fruits, 2-10 cm in diameter depending on variety. | Graf, 1986 |
| Habitat | South America; widely cultivated | Uphof, 1968 |
| Uses | The fruit is eaten both raw and cooked and is also used in traditional medicine. | Duke, 1985 |
| 2-tridecanone extract from leaf | 200 mg/kg 2-tridecanone applied to wheat almost completely prevented emergence of F1 S. granarius 12 weeks after introduction of adults. It was also effective against S. oryzae and S. zeamais but showed little effect against T. castaneum, T. confusum and R. dominica. | Cooke-Stinson, 1986 |
| Constituents | Include coumaroylputrescine, tomatidine,
tomatine, diferuloylputrescine and 2-tridecanone.
Contain a gluco-alkaloid, tomatine, and traces of solanine; narcotine present in unripe fruit. |
Southon and Buckingham, 1988
Duke, 1985 |
| Toxicity | Handling wet plants can cause dermatitis; raw plant has caused fatalities in livestock. | Duke, 1985 |
| SOLANACEAE
Nicotiana tabacum L. (Tobacco, Tabac, Tabaco, Tabak)
|
|
Rehrn and Espig, 1991
|
| Description | Annual or biannual, up to 1 m,
erect stem; large oval leaves; pink or white flowers.
Corolla about 4 cm long, usually five lobed. |
Chevallier, 1996
|
| Habitat | Native to tropical America; cultivated world-wide. | Chevallier, 1996 |
| Uses | Tobacco is used for cigarettes
and as a local medicine in the West Indies. Tobacco seed oil is used as
a salad oil; extracted in Bulgaria, Greece and India.
Tabacco dust (or made into a liquid form) is widely used on vegetable crops as an insecticide, and for medicinal purposes. |
Rehm and Espig, 1991
|
| Leaf powder | 2 g (w/w) admixed with 500 cowpea seeds significantly reduced the numbers of eggs laid by C. maculatus and reduced subsequent egg hatch by 75 percent. | Ofuya, 1990 |
| Dust | Thirty percent medium-grade tobacco
dust admixed with maize reduced damage by natural infestations of S. zeamais and S. cerealella over a 33 week storage period. |
Golob, et al. 1982 |
| Chloroform extract (alkaloid fraction) | Three percent (v/w) admixed with
wheat flour exhibited antifeedant activity against adult T. castaneum
during an exposure period of five days.
Topical application of the alkaloid-containing fraction dissolved in acetone (20 000 mg/kg) resulted in 48 percent larval mortality in T. castaneum 24 hours after application. |
Tiwari, et al. 1995
Tiwari, et al. 1995 |
| Constituents | Include nicotine, nornicotine and anabasine. | Oliver-Bever, 1986 |
| Toxicity | Poisoning in human beings and livestock is not infrequent from intentional or accidental mis-use of nicotine products. The alkaloid is readily absorbed after either ingestion, inhalation, through skin and is fatal in small amounts. | Duke, 1985 |
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