I - INTRODUCTION

1-1 General presentation on French Polynesia

French Polynesia is made up of about 118 islands, of coral or volcanic origin, covering an exposed area of 3,500 km² spread out over 5,000,000 km² (equivalent to the area of Europe). The territory is made up of five archipelagos

- The Society archipelago, consisting of the Windward islands (Tahiti, Moorea and Tetiaroa) and the Leeward islands (Raiatea, Tahaa, Huahine, Bora-Bora and Maupiti)

- The Marquesas archipelago

- The Southern archipelago

- The Tuamotu and Gambier archipelagos

The climate is tropical, oceanic, hot and wet. Water temperature of the lagoons varies between 23° and 26°. The territory is characterized by its young people: 43.1 % of the population (230 000 inhabitants) are less than 20 years of age. French Polynesia became an overseas territory in 1946. The current statute derives from the organic law n° 93-312 of 12 April 1996 which supports the statute for French Polynesian autonomy and the statute n° 96-313 of 12 April 1996 supplementing the statute for French Polynesian autonomy. The High-Commissioner of the Republic represents the State.

Of volcanic origin, the so-called "high" islands of the territory have an uneven landscape. Mountain peaks sometimes extend beyond 2000 meters, as in Tahiti (Orohena and Aorai mountains), in the Southern islands (Parahu mountain, 1450 meters), and on Hiva-Oa in the Marquesas archipelago (Hanaï peak is 1260 meters). The coasts of these high islands are incised with channels opening to sheltered harbours. The other island types of French Polynesia, the so-called "low" islands, e.g. Tuamotu, are called atolls, which form the borders of sheltered lagoons, rich with a distinct biological life.

Papeete, the capital, is located at the following distances:

- 17,100 km from France
- 8,800 km from Japan
- 6,200 km from U S A
- 5,700 km from Australia

The population density is 1,300 inhabitants/km² (cf. Polynesia, with 55 inhabitants/km²)

1-2 Flora of French Polynesia

· The key ecological factors are:

- geographical isolation (i.e. island syndrome)
- reduced size, varying according to island
- younger geological age than the continent
- altitude
- calcareous or volcanic substrate
- tropical climate
- human occupation

· According to Jacques Florence, French Polynesia has more than 70 % of woody plants in its endemic flora.

He cites 2 "woody" families, Asteraceae and Gesneriaceae, within which are found:

- Oparanthus teikiteetinii: one of largest Asteraceae of the Pacific (> 12 m height)
- the endemic genus Fitchia of Eastern Polynesia, with trees up to 10 meters
- the genus Cyrtandra with shrubs up to 4 meters (the Generiaceae family is known as far as Malaysia).

· The endemic flora comprises 500 species, accounting for practically 75% of the species found on the island (675 species)

· A flora census is being carried out, under the aegis of IRD (ex ORSTOM) and the Research Delegation of Polynesia. The first volume of the Polynesian flora was published in 1997, and describes the following 7 families:

Cannabaceae
Cecropiaceae
Euphorbiaceae
Moraceae
Piperaceae
Ulmaceae
Urticaceae

The author, Jacques Florence, research botanist at the Natural History Museum in Paris, carried out morphological descriptions based on herbarium specimens that were gathered as a result of a collection between 1982 and 1994. The author has also based his work on results of many expeditions of other naturalists, collectors, and explorers who have followed one another since 1770 (the "Nadeaud" collectors’ index includes approximately 300 individual collectors).

1-3 Structure of forest vegetation

Strictly speaking, a phyto-sociological study does not exist.

Plant formations, i.e. more or less homogeneous groups of plants, have been distinguished (Papy 1951-1954 / Forsberg 1992 / Florence 1993) according to altitude (vegetation stages), rainfall, wind exposure, insulation, and type of substrate (primary features). These primary features, transformed by human action, are called features of degradation.

The chapter on ecology in the Atlas of French Polynesia gives a table of zonal vegetation on Tahiti and Moorea (Society islands).

Schematically, vegetation distribution and therefore natural forest types, are as follows:

(a) The Para littoral vegetation of the coastal plains or low islands (motu, atolls).

There are no true forests. Some dispersed, indigenous and naturalized forest species remain. Species for food (e.g. coconut), ornamentals, and species for ground protection and windbreaks (the aïto) are found. Thickets are composed of:

Hibiscus tiliaceus (purau)
Calophyllum inophyllum (tamanu)
Barringtonia asiatica (hotu)
Thespesia populnea (miro)
Hernandia nympheifolia (ti'anina)
Casuarina equisetifolia (aïto)

(a) On limestone soils:

- strips of forests with Pandanus (fara) and Pisonia (pu' atea)

- Pioneer bush on coralline sands with:

Hibiscus tiliaceus (purau).
Thespesia populnea (miro).
Hernandia nymphiifolia (ti' anina).
Barringtonia asiatica (hotu)

(b) Formations in low and medium valleys (hygrophilic series) (up to 200m).

· indigenous species of the arborescent layer:

Hibiscus tiliaceus (purau)
Neonauclea forsteri (mara)
Rhus taitensis (apape)
Alphitonia ziziphoides (toi).

· exotic species

Aleurites moluccane (tiairi, candlenut tree)
Inocarpus fagifer (mape).

· fern moors (Gleichenia anuhe) in a thick covering on the poorest soils, resulting from past human occupation or fires.

· market garden cultivation, coconuts.
· guavas, false pistachio, Albizzia, lantana

"plant pest" Miconia calvescens covering more than 60 % of Tahiti

(c) The mesophilic series of low and medium altitude hill groups, which are the most extensive and degraded (up to 400-600m)

Characteristic groups: forest with

Metrosideros collina (puarata) with
Commersonia baztramia (Mao)
Xylosma suaveolens

often on surfaces degraded by fire:

Lantana camara
Psidium guajava (yellow guava).

(d) Moist vegetation in medium and high mountains (slopes, ravines, peaks, between 600 and 1500 m) and the upper parts of large valleys:

(e) High ridges and peaks (beyond 1500 meters), near to the Metrosideros - Weinmannia series: this is more like a maquis than a forest (due to effect of wind, light and lower temperatures), and is stunted, spaced out, with a high degree of endemism (Tahiti, Moorea, Raiatea).

1-4 Main land use

1-4-1 Distribution of land.

Total area: 352,120 ha (100%).

Forest and natural vegetation approximately 70 % of the high islands.

Agricultural area: 18,534 ha mainly used (1995 Agricultural Census) for:

1-4-2 Obstacles to agricultural and forestry development

On the high islands, there is little useable land because of the mountainous and broken terrain. On Tahiti, 47 % of the land has slopes from 50 to 100 %, and 24% have more than 100%. Equipment stability is a problem on slopes of 50 % or more. A 1987 ORSTOM study on Tahiti, led by Remi Jamet, concerning "The soils and their suitability for farming and forest" gives the following figures:

According to this study, only 30 % of the land suited to cultivation on the coastal plain and on the plateaus would be effectively used by food crops, market-gardening, citrus orchards, pastures, and coconut plantations. In fact, the traditional system of land tenure based on common property, remains a significant obstacle to any agricultural or forest development. The areas planted with pine are even weaker, and only a small part will be exploitable because these plantations were established on soils unsuitable for plantations.

The study continues to note that three-quarters of Tahiti's surface area is unsuitable for any cultivation and is only partly available for afforestation (630 km² or 60%). Actually, it is impossible to imagine that most of the vegetation and natural forest could be reconverted into artificial forest, since that would go against the policy for sustainable management of the forest genetic resources.

In fact, the natural forest covering approximately 70 % of the surface area of all the Polynesian high islands has been to a great extent decimated, destroyed, burned and invaded by noxious species such as the following (the list is incomplete):

- Lantana camara (lantana) (introduced in 1853)
- Psidium guajava (yellow goyavier)
- Leucaena leucocephala (acacia)
- Syzygium cuminii (false pistacchio)
- Spathodea campanulata (Gabon tulip tree)
- Miconia calvescens (miconia) (introduced in 1930)

The last named plant has become a real plague, gradually choking and taking over existing forest. According to specialists, three-quarters of Tahiti is thought to have been reached by this plant pest.

Obstacles to forest development are, as in the case of agricultural development, the issue of land tenure and pressure of settlements on the most populated islands such as Tahiti. But there are other obstacles specific to forest development:

- lack of a forestry tradition
- lack of forestry development and sawmilling jobs
- presence of a very powerful lobby of wood importers
- imbalance between the supply of wood (in less populated islands e.g. the Marquesas) and demand (the consumer market is on the Windward and Leeward Islands).

Table 1. Distribution of land on Tahiti in capacity classes for farming and forestry:

Cf. Extracts from the study " Soils and their suitability for farming and forestry"
By R. Jamet - ORSTOM 1987

1-5 Local forest species

In spite of the prevalence of forest on the high islands, the tree species of interest from an economic point of view are rare, and only some species remain that are used or were used in the past (the list is not complete):

- for the wood carving:

Cordia subcordata (Tou)
Thespesia populnea (miro)

- for construction of canoes:

Nauclea forsteriana (mara) = Neonauclea forsteri
Artocarpus altilis (maiora)
Hibiscus tiliaceus (purau)

There has been a progressive disappearance of the richest timber stands as a result of human activity (cultivation for food, coconut plantations, urbanization), and also from cattle grazing and bush fires.

Until now, natural forest remnants have not been managed sustainably. Except in certain isolated cases, cutting of isolated trees continues without any regeneration occurring.

Although a broad-leaved reforestation programme was started at the same time as the pines, it was not properly followed up: the plantations that were established and maintained are very limited in extent.

One of the aims, within the framework of proposals for the forthcoming Development Contract (2000-2004), is to establish Forest Management Plans for each island, taking into account the natural forest and local afforestation. But work to be done is extensive, because no serious study has been made to date of the local stands.

Thus it can be appreciated that importance should be given to research, and determining the value of these species for the Forest Genetic Resources plan.

1-6 Plants introduced by humans

1-6-1 Pre-European period.

The majority of useful Polynesian species, brought in by Polynesians during their migration, comes from Indo-Malaysia.

• The Proto-Polynesians were initially interested in plants providing fibers for their nets and fishing lines (e.g. Hibiscus tiliaceus), and the use of plants that provided poison for fishing (e.g. hotu and hutu reva).

• Plants species were usually used in traditional medicine, in the fabric industry, for dyeing.

• Plants known for magical and ritual properties were not ignored (e.g. sandal, banyan).

• The coconut and fruit-bearing plants (e.g. uru, banana, apple cythère, kava, and mape) were also introduced and adapted to the environment.

It is important to stress that Polynesians are more of horticulturists than farmers, and that they have a certain know-how with regard to adaptation to soils and transformation of plants to their needs.

1-6-2 Plants introduced by Europeans in the last two centuries

Plants introduced by missionaries, sailors, soldiers, or by tropical horticultural enthusiasts, are used for food, ornamentation or for export.

All zones accessible from low and average altitude have been markedly modified with regard to landscape and their indigenous flora.

These introductions were not all beneficial, and certain plants became invasive and uncontrollable.

Miconia is an ornamental plant introduced by Harrison Smith for his Papeari garden (where there is a collection of 250 introduced species). It is for ornaments that introductions were by far the most significant (there is a collection of more than 1000 introduced species) compared to around fifty for vegetable species and a hundred for fruit species.

Among fruit species, a certain number can also be used for their wood.

To try put an end to harmful and uncontrolled introductions, phytosanitary legislation has been put in place (cf § 1-7-4).

Some forest species were introduced to protect and improve the soil (e.g. Albizzia falcata).

Only non-forest plants were introduced and cultivated with a view to export: e.g. orange, coffee, cotton, vanilla, tobacco, pepper, cocoa. Although each of these is still present in the Polynesian flora, only orange, coffee and vanilla are still exploited.

1-6-3 Forest plantations

After the second World War, plant introductions have been attempted with the aim of establishing a forest resource (e.g. with Eucalyptus, tropical pines).

A Water and Forests section was created within the Agricultural Service in 1966. The main aim was to reforest land subject to erosion or destroyed by bush fires. The principal tree species used was Albizzia falcataria, a legume originating from south-east Asia (2375 hectares, of which 50% are in the Leeward islands).

Natural regeneration is sometimes so abundant that in certain areas, the species becomes invasive. A study giving a report on the situation is needed, especially in certain places where urbanization is developing, and where natural regeneration on steep slopes above new housing is becoming a threat.

Since 1977, a true forest policy came into being, and a pine plantation programme was proposed to produce sawlogs needed for territorial requirements. Pinus caribaea plantations, originating from the western Antilles and Central America, currently cover more than 4,200 ha distributed on the high islands of Polynesia: the program initially envisaged could not be completed because of administrative difficulties within the implementing service. So as not to compete with other uses, these plantations were established on degraded moors with Gleichenia, Melinis or Miscanthus ferns, sometimes on inaccessible grounds with very steep slopes, leading as a result to the declassification of 50 % of the planted land.

More limited plantations were carried out using broadleaved trees e.g.

Swietenia macrophylla
Swietenia mahogany
Cedrella odorata
Khaya senegalensis
Tectona grandis

1-7 Legal and planning aspects

1-7-1 Forest legislation

The legal base comes from the decree n° 367/TP of 29 April 1942 concerning regulation of wood cutting in the overseas French Territories of Oceania.

The forest regulation of 1958 (Deliberation n° 58-13 of 7 February 1958 on the modified regime of the National Forestry Commission) relates to protection of soil and forests. It regulates permits for cutting and clearing. It prohibits clearing by fire since 1974. On 30 December 1976, a territorial administrative commission for reforestation was created (which is not operational anymore), and reforestation work was commenced, found necessary for:

- maintenance of land on mountains and slopes
- soil protection against the erosion
- coastal protection
- conservation of water sources and rivers
- protection of national heritage
- population health
- improvement of territorial forest estate

The decree n° 424/CM of 18 May 1993 regulates the tariffs of transfers and services carried out by the Forests and Water section of the Rural Economy Service on behalf of third parties.

1-7-2 Legislation concerning management and urbanization in French Polynesia

· A Management code for French Polynesia was published with an update on 15 July 1996.

· Title I "Establishment and implementation of management plans" defines the three main types of management present in the territory:

- General Management Scheme, or SAGE, which is part of the metropolitan SDAU.
- General Management Plan, or PGA, (equivalent to the POS).
- Detailed Management Plan, or PAD.

Elaboration of the PGA is under way - this can only be done if the community asks for it.

Regulations with regard to urbanization zones have recently (3 March 1999) introduced five categories of natural zones:

- future urbanization zones (NA)
- ordinary natural zones (NB)
- zones of natural wealth (NC).
protected agricultural zones.
zones of forestry exploitation (NCF).
coconut plantations
zones for water collection or mineral deposits
- protected area zones (ND)
because of natural or urban site quality
- zones of high risk or nuisance (NR)

In addition, this new set of regulations allows for definition, within each these zones, concerning which wooded areas should be preserved or created.

1-7-3 Legislation concerning environment and nature conservation.

· There is no Environmental code.

· The Natural Sites and Historic Monuments Commission was created in 1962.

· The Convention on the protection of nature in the Southern Pacific, signed in Apia on 12 June1976, was published by French Polynesia on 1 February 1994.

· The same is true for the convention on protection of natural resources and environment in the Southern Pacific area, signed 24 November 986.

· The legal base (deliberation n° 95-257/AT of December 14, 1995 relating to nature conservation) is recent. It comprises the following parts:

- Definitions

- general principles

- types of classification of protected natural area: 6 categories according to IUCN

- protection of fauna and the flora: species listed that are rare, vulnerable, in danger or of particular interest.

methods of protection

- prohibition of introduction of new species and list of the species threatening the biodiversity.

The decree n° 296/CM of 18 March 1996 included certain species on the list of protected species relevant to category A. Among the 19 protected plants is Santalum insulare var insulare.

The decree n° 244 / CM of 12 February 1998 included certain invasive plant species on the list of species that threaten biodiversity.

Zones protected under the regulatory plan include:

- Decree n° 1472/CM of 26 December 1997, concerning classification of the territorial area Vaikivi (Ua Huka) as a protected natural area.

- Decree n° 678/CM of 5 June 1989 concerning classification of the Faaiti valley, to be known as the territorial natural reserve of Faaiti.

- Decree n° 609/CM of 30 May 1990 approving the charter for the territorial natural reserve of Faaiti.

- Decree n° 1230/CM of 12 November 1992 classifying Scilly (Manuae) and Bellinghausen (Motu One) atolls as territorial reserves located in the commune of Maupiti.

- Decree n° 1460/CM of 27 December 1996 approving the charter for the territorial reserves of Scilly (Manuae) and Bellinghausen (Motu one).

- Decree n° 2559/DOM of 28 July 1971 concerning classification for protection of the lagoon on Manuae or Scilly islands, dependant on the administrative district of the Windward and Leeward Islands, and of various islands and islets dependant on the administrative district of the Marquesas Islands.

1-7-4 Legislation concerning phytosanitary control.

The importation of all plants and parts of plants (fruits, flowers, leaves, branches, roots, seeds) into the Territory of French Polynesia is strictly prohibited, except on presentation of an international plant health certificate. To import flowers and fruits, a special permit is necessary, which can be obtained from the Department of Plant Protection (DPV) of the Rural Development Service.

The basic texts are:

- Law n° 52-1256 of 26 November 1952 relating to organization of plant protection in the territories covered by the French Overseas Ministry.

- Decree n° 61-1533 of 22 December 1961 concerning publication of the International Convention for Plant Protection (FAO resolution 14/79).

- Deliberation n° 93-155 of 3 December 1993 concerning plant protection on the whole French Polynesia territory.

1-7-5 National Forest Policy

The main components of forest policy appear in the following documents:

- Texts of various Development Contracts

- Decree n° 446/CM of 24 April 1995 concerning organization of the Rural Development Service, in particular article 23 of the departmental missions "Forest and Management of Rural Areas".

- Study carried out by CIRAD in April - May 1996: "Re-evaluation of reforestation policy using Caribbean pine in Polynesia.

- Communication n° 75/MAG/CM in the Council of Ministers on 23 November 1997 of the Minister for Agriculture and Cattle Raising on readjustment of Polynesian forest policy.

1-8 Economic and ecological roles of forestry.

· Forests and trees are important for the country’s environment in the plans that concern:

- landscape (living conditions)
- ecology and patrimony
- economy (cottage industry sector).

· Because of the following elements:

- stands only now becoming mature in certain afforested areas
- setting up of forest harvesting and saw-milling companies and sawing in progress, sales of local pine timber is insignificant.

· Broadleaved trees are subject to harvesting, particularly as dry wood for woodcarvers. The income from carvings is significant, and certainly not comparable with the cost of raw wood, which unfortunately is often obtained free, the resource tending to be plundered.

· The demand for sawlogs would currently be satisfied by imports (for which lobbying is significant). (in 1996, 880 million Pacific Francs were paid for 24 000 m3 of coniferous sawn timber).