Introduction

Sudan is a vast country with an area of 2.5 million square kilometres. It is bounded on the east by the Red Sea and on the other sides by nine African Nations: Eritrea, Ethiopia, Kenya, Uganda, Zaire, Central African Republic, Chad, Libya and Egypt.

It is administratively divided into 117 provinces which are grouped into 26 states.

The most salient geographical feature of the country is the Nile Valley. The Blue Nile originates in the Ethiopian Highlands. The White Nile originates from the Equatorial Lakes. The two rivers and their tributaries unite at Khartoum to form the River Nile which runs north to the Mediterranean Sea.

The soil in about 60%  of the country, particularly in the northeast, north and northwest is predominantly sand. Heavy cracking clay soils form a triangular central easterly plain which makes up some 30% of the country. Red soils of different types are characteristic of the remaining south-western portion.

The rainfall varies from nothing in the northern desert to more than 1500 mm in the southern tropical mixed deciduous forests.

The vegetation can be divided into seven principal types which in general follow the isohyets and form consecutive series from north to south: 1. Desert; 2. Acacia Desert Scrub; 3. Acacia Short Grass Scrub; 4. Acacia Tall Grass Scrub; 5. Broad-leaved Woodland and Forests; 6. Forests (Gallery forest, Bowl or Depression forest and Cloud forest); 7. Swamps and Grassland (permanent swamps, seasonally inundated land, Grassland, Mountain Meadow). The effect of the topography on vegetation is limited and confined to mountain massifs, hills, upland country and Nile Valley and its tributaries.

Sudan’s total population in 1999 was 29.9 million, of which 25% was urban. Nearly 16% of the total population resided in the three towns making up the capital (Khartoum, Khartoum North and Omdurman).

The  total population grows at an average of 2.9% per year.

The economy is predominantly agricultural (including livestock production, forestry, and fishing), which altogether contribute to about 48% of the Gross Domestic Product (GDP).

The principal exports are primary agricultural products. Cotton is the main export commodity, followed by livestock, meat and oil seeds. Sudan is the world’s largest producer of gum arabic.

Sudan started exporting oil in August 1999.

 

Forestry in the Sudan:

Forestry activities started in the Sudan exactly one hundred years ago. Following the Battle of Karare between the Mahdist army and the Anglo-Egyptian army, and the start of condominium rule in 1898, the condominium government commissioned an Indian forester to tour the country and produce a comprehensive report about the state of forests in the country. As a result of his report the Woods and Forests Ordinance was published in 1901 and the Department of Woodlands and Forests was established the same year. The Ordinance was replaced in 1908 by the promulgation of the First Forest Act. Legislative measures continued ever since. The most salient of these are the endorsement of Sudan’s Forest Policy in 1932, the Central and Provincial Forest Ordinances (1932), the Royalty Ordinance (1939) the Local Government Act of 1972, Regional Government Act 1980, the amendment thereof in 1985, the revision of Forest Policy in 1986 and the creation of the Forests National Corporation (FNC) and Revision of Forest Act in 1989.

The legislative process is a reflection of many variables. One of these, was the dichotomy of interest and dispute over forestland and resources between the central and provincial authorities. The process of forest reservation which started in 1923 was very much hampered by the provincial authorities. Albeit, their pretext was to protect the interests of villagers and forest-neighbouring communities in grazing, wood-collection and access to water sources. These concerns which proved to be very much in line with current thinking, were taken care of in the Forest Policy Statement of 1932 and supporting legislations particularly the Central Forest Ordinance and Provincial Forest Ordinance, both of 1932.The Policy clearly divided the responsibilities between the central authorities represented by the Chief Conservator of Forests and the local authorities represented by the Provincial Governors. The former was made responsible for the supply of Sudan timber and wood fuel for the three Khartoum towns, Wad Medani and the Gezira Area, and Port Sudan, as well as to Government Departments, including wood stations, ( supplying river steamers ) and for the control and upkeep of areas from which these materials will be obtained. These areas, which will be so managed on a basis of rotational cutting and regeneration, as permanently to yield the supplies required, will be declared Central Forest Reserves. As regards the remaining needs of the country, Governors will be responsible for ensuring that the permanent supply of forest produce is sufficient to meet the internal requirements of their respective provinces, and will be empowered to declare as Provincial Forest Reserves.

The legislations made imperative the statement by each reservation order to guard the rights of villagers , herdsmen, forest- neighbours and the public at large in access to water  sources through rights of way, together with privileges in wood collection for non-commercial uses and grazing. In lieu of that the laws call on forest neighbours to help putting out forest fires.

However, the process of forest reservation remained lengthy and bureaucratic and the provincial authorities did not show any enthusiasm in that respect.  For over 70 years, since the commencement of the process of forest reservation in 1923 and up to 1993 the total area of gazetted forest estate was just about 1.3 million ha, of which only 21000 ha were provincial forest reserves, and none of which was put under management.

During the 50 years which followed the passing of Forest Policy and up to the advent of nfp in 1985, the forest service went through difficult times. From answering directly to the responsible minister up to independence in 1956, it was demoted to the third tier of seniority and having to answer to a junior undersecretary in the Ministry of Agriculture. Through the Local Government Act of 1972, the provincial authorities took control of all forests in their domain. The Addis Ababa Accord of 1972 which was reached to stop the first eruption of the civil strife in the south created three ministries for agriculture there for which the forest sector was added. Worse still, mechanized rainfed farming expanded on millions of hectares of Savanna woodlands. The Forests Department as it was called then, was unable to continue its originally envisaged programmes.[1]⁾

Afforestation programmes were reduced from an annual target of 30 000 ha to slightly more than  12 000 ha. Production of sawn timber dropped from an annual average of 25 000 m³ in 1970 to 10 000 m³ during the 1980s.Moreover the Department was unable to continue protection of the natural forests from fires, illicit felling or clearance for unauthorized mechanized farming operations let alone the authorized ones. What is really regrettable was that the planned mechanized farming was generously financed by international finance organizations. It expanded on millions of hectares of Savannah woodlands at the expense of forest cover, range resources and biodiversity. Added to this, the era since independence witnessed enormous expansion in traditional rainfed farming, irrigated farming , urbanization and expansion in agro-based industries. The summation of all that yielded the land classification picture depicted in table (1).

Table (1). Sudan : Land Classification 1983 (million ha.)

Desert	Water/ Swamp	Urban	Agriculture	Woodland  & Forests	Scrub & Semi-desert	Total
86.25	2.93	0.28	16.91	93.87	50.34	250.58
34%	1%	0	7	38%	20%	100%
		(a)	(b)	(c)

(a): villages, towns and industrial estate.

(b): Irrigated, mechanized and traditional rainfed cropped areas.

(c): Woodlands and forest range from bushland in areas where annual rainfall is about 400 mm, to tropical high forests mainly found in the mountains of the south. The overall stocking (stem volume) averaged 24 m³ per ha. with the total above ground volume averaging 33 m³ per ha. Actual values vary from less than 1 m³ per ha. in the northern bushlands to 150 m³ per ha. in the southern montane forests.

They include          

c.1. 1.3 million ha of gazetted reserved forests (central, provincial and institutional forests)

c.2. 17.74 million ha. of wildlife reserves. These are made up of eight national parks, two biosphere reserves and one marine park, 11 game reserves and three sanctuaries. The Wildlife Ordinance of 1935 and Game Regulation Act 1939 provide for three categories of protected areas: National parks with the higher degree of protection, game reserves where limited use of resources is permitted and game sanctuaries where protection is for a particular species.

Sources:

Investing for Economic Stabilization and Structural Change 355a-SU, February 16, 198 World Bank. Washington DC.

Agricultural Sector Survey 1836a-Su, May 18,1979. World Bank. Washington DC.

Issues and Options in the Energy Sector, 4511SU , July 1983

Forestry Sector Review Estimates

Sudan Wood Energy /Forestry Project. August 1987. Household Energy Unit, Industry and Energy Department.

CFA Forest Reservation Section, 1989 Khartoum

Wildlife Protection Corps Records 1999

 

The Civil Strife in the South

Sudan got its independence from Anglo-Egyptian rule on January 1st 1956. Things started to go wrong in Southern Sudan on the eve of independence. The first mutiny took place in August 1955. Things did not return to normal until 1972 with the signing of an Ethiopian-brokered Addis Ababa Accord. This gave Southern Sudan a fair degree of autonomy through the establishment of three federal regions in the south, each with a full-fledged government. One of the ministries created in each region was a ministry of agriculture. The forest service in each region was added to the Ministry of Agriculture there; thus there was no jurisdiction for the Director of forests of Sudan over forestry matters in the South

In spite of the hostilities, business was usual for forestry during the period 1956-1972. In fact that was the era which witnessed the greatest timber production from natural forests, to the extent that Sudan was only self-sufficient in sawn timber in 1964. The era also witnessed the greatest expansion in forest plantations. Teak (Tectona grandis) plantations which were started in the late 1930s were expanded tremendously.

Following the Addis Ababa Accord, things were quiet and forestry business was as usual up to 1983 when the current episode erupted. Since  then the only forest operations conducted were looting of teak plantations, deforestation and forest degradation around major towns in the greater Equatoria and Bahr el Ghazal to a radius of 5-10 km. That was to avail land for subsistence agriculture and provide building poles and fuelwood. Things are different in the greater Upper Nile. The northern border  of it witnessed large-scale tree clearance for mechanized rainfed farming.

The gross impact of the current episode of civil strife on forests and wild life resources is not known for certain. The NFRI conducted in 1994-97 was only partial because it did not cover Southern Sudan or the areas of the north affected by the unrest. It is reckoned that the looting of teak plantations and accessible natural forests particularly mahogany (Khaya senegalensis) far outweighs the gains in natural regeneration and annual increment. 

Contribution of Forestry to the National Economy

The contribution of the forestry sector to the Sudanese GDP is a matter of controversy between the forest and economic authorities. Whereas forestry studies put it at more than 10% , the figures published by the Ministry of Finance lump it together with fisheries and put it as 2.99% (1988/89), 3.03% (1989/90), 2.73 (1992/93) and 3.0% in 1998 

 This ratio however is likely to continue decreasing with the increase of oil revenue. Besides its contribution to the GDP, Sudan forests render direct and indirect benefits. The indirect benefits include environmental protection, water-shed protection, soil amelioration, work opportunities for rural population, browse and grazing material for the national herd of domestic animals and wildlife ...etc. Perhaps the most tangible benefit derived by the people of Sudan from their forests is fuelwood (firewood and charcoal), industrial and building timber. In 1999, according to the results of Forests Products Consumption Survey (FPCS) (1994), Sudan would have consumed energy equivalent to eight million tons of oil equivalent, 70% of this in the way of wood, charcoal and other biomass.

The annual exports of gum arabic range between 20-40 thousand tons which earn some 50-80 million US $.

Nfp Process in the Sudan:

 

Phase 1. Organization of the process.

Sudan depended heavily on its forest resources for the supply of biomass energy. That was revealed by two successive joint UNDP / World Bank (WB) Energy Sector Assessments in 1983 and 1984.

A Forestry Sector Review  (FSR) was carried out in 1984/86 by a joint team consisting of representatives of Government of Sudan (GOS) and overseas aid agencies spearheaded by the WB and including USAID, The Netherlands, FINNIDA, Canadian International Development Agency, Danida, Overseas Development Agency U.K., GTZ, Norwegian Ministry of Development Cooperation, FAO and UNDP. The FSR was considered as Sudan’s Phase I of nfp.

FSR Objectives and Priority Areas Identified

In identifying the development priorities in the wood energy/forestry sector, four main criteria were considered. First, to facilitate the success of the proposed six-year development effort, it was clear that the Sudanese institutions concerned needed to be strengthened not only in project specific areas of expertise but also on a general level to reflect the increasing importance of this vital sector in the country's economy. Second, the success of a project of this nature largely depends upon the participation of the private sector and appropriate mechanisms and incentives needed to be devised and promoted to ensure this participation. Third, given the resource constraints faced by the Sudanese economy and the implementation capability (albeit strengthened through the proposed project) of the institutions involved, it would be prudent to allocate priority to those development interventions which involve less capital expenditure and higher benefits, preferably over a relatively short period. Finally, some action was needed in parallel, to initiate projects with a longer-term gestation period which will assist in sustaining subsequent stages of the development effort. Based on these criteria and taking into account the recommendations of the Forestry Sector Review, the Mission recommended that the development objectives of the wood energy/forestry sector over the next six years be prioritized as follows:

(a) institutional strengthening of the Central and Regional Forestry Administrations and the woodfuels- related aspects of NEA and other agencies;

(b) introduction of incentives to strengthen and encourage participation of the private sector in wood energy conservation and wood production;

(c) conservation of woodfuels by improving charcoal production, increasing the utilization efficiency of fuelwood and charcoal and streamlining the charcoal industry through appropriate policy interventions;

(d) regulation of forest clearance activities under mechanized farming schemes to ensure the retention of sufficient forest cover and the provision of incentives to convert cleared woody biomass into charcoal;

(e) improvement of the existing arrangements for protection and management of woodlands both within and outside forest reserves so as to improve the woodfuel and other wood products supply as well as to provide environmental protection; and

(f)  increasing wood supplies including woodfuels, through tree-planting, starting with pilot level operations which, depending on results can be replicated over the long term.

A development programme aimed at achieving the objectives outlined above will have an impact on, and in turn be affected by prevailing  socio-economic conditions in  relevant parts of the Sudan. The preparation of the project included studies aimed at identifying the principle socio-economic and environmental features that affect project design and implementation.

Considering that FRS was undertaken 15 years ago, a lot of changes have taken place since. Some of the findings/conclusions identified by FSR are still valid but others ceased to be so. The primary concern of GOS at the time and therefore that of FSR was the fuelwood supply. Perhaps one of the biggest projects ever undertaken in the forestry sector was to address that problem: Fuelwood for Energy Supply in Sudan. The project GCP/SUD/037/NET was funded by the Netherlands and implemented by GOS and FAO. One of the most notable outcomes of a subsequent phase of that project was the establishment of the FNC and the conducting of a forest product consumption survey and a national forest resources inventory. The demand survey quantified the wood consumption at the time (1994) with projection for 10 years. Less than 6 years along , it seems as if the projections have been overtaken by events. Fuelwood still represents a huge proportion of Sudan's energy budget. But with the advent of Sudan's utilization of its oil resources and shifting from a net importer of petroleum derivatives to a net exporter with huge amounts of LPG, the consumption of charcoal has dropped drastically. Firewood is no longer the main energy source for bakeries. Plans are underway to replace it in brick kilns, the biggest current consumer of firewood. An update/revision of the consumption survey would perhaps be necessary to accurately assess the needs. However, fuelwood might not be the primary objective of an updated/revised FSR or nfp.

Remaining findings/conclusions on fuelwood (private sector role in energy conservation, provision of incentives to convert woody biomass cleared from  MRF operations into charcoal etc.) are no longer priority as such.

The findings/conclusions which remain valid are those dealing with institutional strengthening at federal and state levels, improvement of arrangements for protection and management of woodlands both inside and outside forest reserves, and increasing wood supplies through tree planting partly for fuelwood but largely for other purposes (small wood-based industries, pulp , and mostly for the protective value for agricultural environment and watershed).

 

Phase II. Strategic Planning:  1992 – 1998.

A Comprehensive National Strategy (CNS) for socio-economic development 1992-2002 has been formulated and enacted by the Federal Government. The CNS was made of strategies for 12 sectors. Namely : social development; human resources development; culture & information; science & technology; politics & judiciary system; foreign relations; security & defence; economic; agriculture, animal wealth & natural resources; maps & land data; industry, energy & mining; and transport, communications & storage. There are strategies for subsections within each of these. For instance, within the strategy for agriculture, animal wealth & natural resources, there are strategies for the irrigation & water resources; irrigated agriculture; rainfed agriculture; natural resources; animal wealth & fisheries and drinking water subsectors. The CNS called for the allocation of 25% of the total area of the country for natural resources, namely forestry, range & pasture and wildlife. The CNS also stressed the importance of taking the environmental dimension into consideration during the process of planning for sustainable development.

The First Three-Year and the Second Three-Year Programmes of the CNS had been implemented. 1999 was the first year of the third and last Four-year Programme of the CNS.

Phase III. Implementation: 1989 till now.

The overall economic development strategy of the GOS emphasizes food security, self- reliance and balanced regional development (states and provinces). With the problems of recurrent droughts and desertification, environmental protection and conservation of natural resources are becoming important considerations as evident from the various policies, legislations and strategies pertaining to resources use.

Phase IV. Revision/Updating.

GOS has already echoed its intention to formulate a 25-year vision (2002–2027) including a first five-year programme 2002-2007. nfp would be revised and updated accordingly.

A revision of the Forest Policy Statement for 1986 is underway to accommodate socio-economic, environmental, constitutional and administrative variables.

Sudan’s nfp was actually conceived simultaneously with or just before the official launching by the WB, FAO and UNDP of the Tropical Forest Action Programme. Yet Sudan seems to have followed most of the basic principles in the preparation and implementation of its nfp. Such considerations as National Sovereignty and Country leadership; Sustainability of Forest Management; Partnership; Participation; Inter-sectoral  Approach; Capacity Building; Policy and Institutional Reforms; Harmonization with National Planning Frameworks and International Commitment were all evident in the process. Again the classic Operational Guidelines namely Organization of the Process; Strategic Sector Planning, Implementation and Revision / Update were faithfully followed.

In order to derive maximum benefit from the wealth of technical expertise available in the Sudan, the FSR preparation was divided into two phases: Phase I, a local preparation effort aimed at initial data collection and preliminary project design and analysis followed by Phase II, a detailed technical, economic and financial analysis by an ESMAP team. During the four-month local preparation phase, ESMAP fielded two missions, one to assist in initiating the work and the other to review the progress, and provide guidance and advice to complete the work. The Phase II ESMAP Mission was fielded in November- December 1986. The mission’s report contained its main findings and recommendations and included the design and feasibility analysis for a six-year Wood Energy project for the Sudan. A supporting set of working papers has been compiled which provided details and background information on the specific components of the proposed project.

In retrospect, the work done by the  local preparation team under Phase I proved to be an invaluable and integral factor in the project preparation process. First it tapped the expertise in the wood energy subsector in the Sudan. Secondly, the process of consultations enabled the various agencies involved to understand better their mutual interests and specific requirements. In particular the linkages between the Forest Administration and the National Energy Administration were strengthened. Thirdly, the active participation of implementing agencies in the design of the project helped maintain continuity through the design, implementation and monitoring of the project. This seemed to have enhanced the prospects for an ultimately successful programme.

The basic principles and operational tools utilized were thus fairly successful in achieving the main objectives of the process up to the point when international commitment was fulfilled.

 The exercise was again effective in attending to intersectoral aspects up to the point when international support was forthcoming for related sectors which needed it most like forestry education and research.

The involvement of various national and international organizations active in forestry was effective and concrete.