The outcome of implementation of nfp in Sudan is evident in many parameters and aspects:
Sudan has never had a truly national forest inventory. The
widest inventory; The National Forest Resources Inventory (NFRI) was launched
early 1995. It covered most of the area north of lat 10ْ with crown
cover of more than 10%. It covered an area of 62 270 000 ha equivalent to
24% of the total surface area of the country. The results were published 1998.
However, some tracts of forests have been inventoried before e.g. Biomass
resources east of the Nile (1991), Southern Blue Nile and Northern Bahr El
Ghazal (1984), parts of Kordofan and Darfur (1990-94), parts of N. Blue Nile
(1994), besides the regular inventory of forest reserves under management
plans. The state of natural forests can only be extrapolated from these ad
hoc surveys and from global ones such as that by FAO (1990 and 1999). The
most recent such extrapolation cites land use systems in the Sudan as is depicted
in Table 2.
Table 2. Land Utilization – Sudan 2000 . Area in million feddans*
|
Desert |
Water/ Swamp |
Urban |
Agriculture |
Woodland/ Forests |
Scrub & Semi-Desert |
Total |
|
86.25 |
2.93 |
1.00 |
22.1 |
88.68 |
49.62 |
250.58 |
|
34.42% |
1.17% |
0.4% |
8.82% |
35.39% |
19.80% |
100% |
|
|
|
(a) |
(b) |
(c) |
|
|
(a): Villages, towns and industrial estate.
(b): Irrigated, mechanized and traditional rainfed cropped areas.
(c): Woodlands and forest range from bushland in areas where annual rainfall is about 400 mm, to tropical high forests mainly found in the mountains of the south. The overall stocking (stem volume) averages 24 m³ per ha. With the total above ground volume averaging 33 m³ per h. Actual values vary from less than 1 m³ per ha. In the northern bushlands to 150 m³ per ha. In the southern montane forests.
They include:
c.1. 10.03 million ha of gazetted reserved forests (central, provincial, institutional , community and private forests)
c.2. 17.74 million ha of wildlife reserves.
Sources:
1. Investing for Economic Stabilization and Structural Change 355a-SU, February 16, 1982. World Bank. Washington DC.
2. Agricultural Sector Survey 1836a-Su, May 18,1979. World Bank. Washington DC.
3. Issues and Options in the Energy Sector, 4511SU , July 1983
4. Forestry Sector Review Estimates
5. Sudan Wood Energy /Forestry Project. August 1987. Household Energy Unit, Industry and Energy Department.
6. FNC Reservation Section Records. Sept. 20000
7. Wildlife Protection Corps Records 2000
8. Papers and reports Agricultural Conference, March 1996, Khartoum
Forests and woodlands not constituted as forest reserves (the latter only make about 4.0% of the total land area), are continuously being encroached upon by agriculture and urbanization or otherwise degraded by uncontrolled felling. The forest reservation process which started in 1923 was only able during 70 years to settle and finally gazette 1.3 million ha equivalent to 0.5% of the total area of the country. A number of government decrees passed in September 1993 brought the area under forest reserves to 10.0 million ha equivalent to 4.0% of the total country area. In view of the rising official and public awareness and official enthusiasm for the sector, it is expected that more land will be explicitly allocated to forestry, range and pasture and wildlife as spelled out by the CNS 1992 – 2002. The latter called for the allocation of 63 million ha for natural resources; i.e. 25% of the country’s area. That area would eventually need to be put under management plans.
Together with protected wildlife reserves, this brings the reserved forest estate to 27.8 million ha. equivalent to 11% of the total area of the country. It includes, only since the implementation of nfp community and private forests Table (3).
Table (3). Forest Estate of Sudan in ha. 2000
|
Parameter |
1901– 1985 |
1986 – 2000 |
|
Total reserved forest estate |
18 994 080 |
27 773 122 |
|
a.1. Total Gazetted forest reserves |
1 253 280 |
10 032 322 |
|
a.1.1. Gazetted federal forests |
1 239 420 |
6 333 682 |
|
a.1.2. Gazetted state forests |
21 420 |
3 676 014 |
|
a.1.3. Gazetted institutional forests |
5 040 |
13 723 |
|
a.1.4. Gazetted community forests (including mesquite belts in Shendi & Debba) |
- |
4 150 |
|
a.1.5. Gazetted private forests |
- |
4 753 |
|
a.1.6. Gazetted protected areas |
17 740 800 |
17 740 800 |
Afforestation and reforestation activities are restricted to areas constituted as reserves and subsequently put under management, almost exclusively owned by FNC, institutional forests such as those owned by agricultural schemes e.g. Gezira, Rahad, Kenana etc., community woodlots, private woodlots, forests or windbreaks or shelterbelts, tables (4) and (5).
In afforestation inside forest reserves, trees/shrubs usually used are indigenous in areas of less than 500 mm rainfall and exotic in more humid areas. Indigenous trees most commonly used are Acacias particularly A. senegal, A. nilotica, A. seyal and A. mellifera and Khaya senegalensis.
Exotic trees used are Cupressus sp. in montane areas and Eucalyptus particularly E. microtheca, E. camaldulensis and E. tereticornis in areas of more than 600 mm of rainfall or under irrigation, together with bamboo (Oxytenanthera abyssinica).
The first tracts of forests to be put under management plans were the riverain A. nilotica forests along the Blue Nile, Dinder and Rahad rivers. That was started in 1949. For the tract between Damazine and Sennar with an area of 9000 ha a rotation of 30 years for the production of saw logs for railway sleepers was followed. For forests between Sennar and Khartoum with an area of 5540 ha a rotation of twenty years was used to produce building poles and firewood.
Besides the production of sawn timber, building poles and firewood these forests also provide fish, browse material and perhaps more importantly is the protection of river banks, installations on rivers e.g. dams and bridges and amelioration of climate for riverbank agriculture and human settlements.
Other areas that had management plans before the commencement of nfp included the irrigated plantations in Gezira, Rahad, N. Halfa and Kenana.
Tracts put under management plans since the implementation of nfp included such forests as Rawashda / Wad Kabu, Saref Saeed, Jebel Marra, Dali (A. senegal), with a total area of some 84 000 ha., Substantial A. senegal plantations that were effected in public and private ownerships in Kordofan, Darfur and Gadaref are yet to be put under management plans.
The implementation of nfp did not perhaps expand the overall tree cover of the country or decelerate the rate of deforestation. It certainly tried to quantify both parameters. It certainly increased the area of forest reserves and that under management plans both of plantations and natural forests. The deforestation of 5.19 million ha. in 17 years (1983-2000) still leaves an annual deforestation rate of some 300 000 ha.1)
In view of the 1994 FPCS and the 1998 NFRI, and taking into consideration the emerging pattern of energy supply referred to at the end 1.2.1, which are likely to relieve the forestry sector the supply of huge amounts of wood that used to go to urban centres in the way of charcoal and firewood for bakeries and brick kilns, the sustainability of supply of goods and services from forest resources are more promising. None the-less a massive effort in reservation, afforestation, reforestation and management is required.
Table 4. Plantations in Forests Reserves in ha:
|
Period / Year |
ha. |
|
Up to 1990 |
270207 |
|
1990 / 2000 |
378000 |
Table 5. Community Woodlots in ha:
|
Year |
ha. |
|
1986 – 90 |
69 |
|
1991 – 95 |
17369 |
|
1996 – 2000 |
124284 |
|
Total |
141722* |
* The area registered in the government gazette as forest reserves is less than 4 000 ha.
Policy, legislation and institutional changes which came about as a result of nfp implementation include:
Policy Changes in Sudan that have a bearing on natural resources conservation started with the passing of a new Forest Policy for 1986 by H.E. the Minister of Agriculture , which formed the basis for the strategy for forestry sector in the country. It was an update for an earlier statement, the Forest Policy 1932.
The Prime objective of both statements was the reservation, establishment and development of forest resources for the purpose of environmental protection and meeting the needs of population for forest products. Over and above, the Forest Policy 1986:
Stressed the role of forests in environmental protection.
Recognized and encouraged the establishment of community, private and institutional forests.
Subjected tree cutting outside forest reserves to the discretion of the Director, Central Forest Administration (CFA) provided that these areas are reserved immediately following their utilization for the purpose of their protection and regeneration.
Made obligatory the utilization of tree stocks on land allocated for agricultural investment (not to be burnt into ashes) and to leave specified percentage of tree cover inside and around agricultural investment schemes in the form of shelterbelts and windbreaks.
Stressed the mobilization of popular and international efforts for participation in afforestation, tree planting and forest protection.
Raised the national goal of forest reserves from 15 to 20% of the total area of the country for environmental protection and meeting the population’s needs for forest products.
Stressed the role of forest extension.
Conceptualized the multiple use of forest.
Divided forest administration responsibility between the Central Government and the Regions (states and provinces).
Made the Director, CFA, the official counselor to the regional authorities and institutions on forestry matters.
At the policy making level the forestry sector started to receive increasing attention, and the environmental role of forests and trees, including the containment of desertification and land degradation, has been appreciated.
Changes in legislation with direct relevance to forestry as a result of nfp included:
Revision of Forest Act for 1989 by act of pertinent; the same that enacted the establishment of FNC referred to in 2.2.3.a.
The enactment in 1992 of 10 years development plan the CNS 1992 – 2002. The latter called for the allocation of 25% of the surface area of the country for natural resources viz forestry, wildlife and range.
A number of presidential decrees in 1993 which expedited the slow process of forest reservation. As a result the area of gazetted forest reserves climbed from 1.3 to 10.0 million ha i.e. from 0.5% to 4.0% of the overall area of the country
A series of Presidential Decrees establishing the federal system of government in Sudan. Most of the decrees designated federal and state forests to be administrated by the FNC and state governments respectively.
The 1998 constitution which was adopted by public referendum before its enactment by parliament. The constitution designated federal and state forests. It also stipulated the summon by federal legislation of a national council to lay down criteria for federal and state forests. The FNC was instrumental in outlining the envisaged criteria.
The criteria for designation of federal and other forests was the ones used in the Council of Ministers Decree No (40) of 1997.
These were elaborated in 2.2.4.e.iii.
The chamber of Federal Rule had already summoned a committee chaired by a previous Minister of Finance and National Economy to lay down the criteria for designation of federal and other forests and division of revenue from forests. The committee conducted several public hearings on the matter and submitted its proposals to the presidency. The views of forestry and states were heard. Nothing was enacted in this respect due to the recent dissolving of parliament and re-election of another. Until something is enacted, some states will continue their existing dispute with the FNC over ownership of forest resources, management thereof and revenue.
All in all, what happened to forestry in the Sudan as a result of the implementation of nfp was a positive politicization of forestry or a manipulation of politics in favour of forestry. The dedication and commitment by the Minister of Agriculture to sector was behind the selection of suitable leadership for forestry. This in turn boosted the forester’s morale immensely.
The combination of all that lead to:
The recognition of the role of forestry by top political leadership as reflected in the presidential decrees, those of the Council of Ministers and constitutional arrangements.
The naming of the Ministry of Agriculture to include forestry (Ministry of Agriculture & Forestry) for the first time in a century since the existence of a forest service.
The culmination of appreciation into the appointment of a forester as the senior most State Minister in the Ministry of Agriculture and Forestry.
Institutional changes as a result of nfp implementation were largely centred on forestry but also encompassed forestry education and extension.
The most important development in the field of forestry institutions in the Sudan as a consequence of nfp implementation was the establishment of the Forests National Corporation (FNC) through an act of the parliament in 1989 completely replacing the CFA, with clear organizational structure and defined functions. The most striking difference between CFA and FNC is that the latter is autonomous, answers directly to the Minister and retains the revenue it generates to use in performing its functions.
Since, its establishment, the FNC has been instrumental in achieving important changes in forestry. FNC found that the data base for planning was very weak including basic statistics about forest areas, growing stock, annual removal, consumption, deforestation, trade in forest products and forest replacement and production costs. It solicited local and international support to address these weaknesses.
Forestry research in Sudan dates back to the 1940s, but was formalized in 1962 with the establishment of the Forest Research Centre (FRC) at Soba. In 1975 forestry research became part of the Agricultural Research Corporation (ARC).
Forestry research is still part of ARC under the Ministry of Agriculture and Forestry. The headquarters for forestry research is the FRC at Soba with outstations in El Obeid (Gum research), Damazine (Clay plains silviculture) and Ed Damar (Agro-forestry). No institutional changes have taken place since 1990.
There has been no institutional change in forestry research with the advent of nfp for two reasons: The research staff opted not to join the FNC and the ARC was not keen to let go on the perception that its presence within the ARC will effect the desirable integration of forestry and agriculture. Unfortunately forestry research did not benefit much from joining the ARC. With the latter facing financial difficulties like all government agencies in Sudan over the past decade research in forestry could not favourably compete for the meagre resources with that on arable crops like cotton or sesame. In the process sample plots in forest reserves were neglected and overall relations with main steam forestry have been weakened.
As a result of implementation of the CNS, forestry education as part of higher education has undergone substantial institutional changes. The latter included the establishment of some 19 federal and state universities to bring the total to 26 government universities besides 24 private institutes of higher education. Whereas forestry education was available at degree and diploma levels in only five institutions prior to the commencement of nfp, now it is available in nine universities. Not only that, but forestry departments in Khartoum and Sudan universities have been elevated to the status of faculties. The former purely for forestry while the latter is for forestry and range. In addition to the already existing Faculty of Environmental Studies and Natural Resources of Juba University and the newly established Faculty of Natural Resources at Kordofan University, this brings the number of full fledged faculties to four. The number of graduates from these schools and employment prospects for then are dealt with in capacity building (2.5.)
Forestry extension is perhaps the latest comer of forestry aspects to Sudanese forestry. It arrived just before the nfp in 1984 as a component of the Netherlands-funded, FAO-implemented project: Fuelwood Development for Energy in Sudan (GCP/SUD/033/NET). Before that some sort of extension was practiced but without being referred to as such. It was not even included in the curricula of forestry education institutes. It obviously came not just to stay but to become the main driving force in Sudanese forestry.
The most pronounced institutional changes in this respect were initiated by the newly revised statement of forest policy in 1986-(2.2.1.). The latter clearly indicated the need to change the many decades old police and barbed wire attitude to a one of persuasion, partnership and social fence.
The concept of community forestry was institutionalized for the first time.
Deploying the usual methods of communication (radio, press, TV, audiovisual aides, puppet theatre shows & publications, training, monitoring and revaluation through tens of forest professionals and technicians of equal gender representation) forestry extension soon made its presence felt amongst foresters, the public at large and decision makers.
Early recruits to forestry extension now occupy leading positions in the FNC and other institutions. It appears in the second tier of responsibility in the FNC organogramme. It is taught as such or in the context of community forestry in most forestry departments in Sudanese universities.
The extension message capitalized on social and religious values which condone planting of trees, caring for them and not cutting them unlawfully. Besides the extension agents, religious leaders and community elders preached the cause. In this respect, imams frequently echo some of Prophet Mohammed’s traditions from mosque pulpits or through the media which consider all benefits derived by man or beast from trees including shades as an endowment for the tree planter or owner.
The extension message was substantiated by issue of tree seedlings from FNC’s own nurseries or those of donor assisted projects. Small private nurseries run by women or medium-size commercial ones were encouraged. All categories of nurseries were encouraged to produce forest tree, ornamental and fruit tree seedlings. The FNC went as far as endeavouring to establish nurseries within 25 kms of each other. As a result, production of tree seedlings increased from just over two millions to more than 20 million a year.
The decentralization process brought about by the legislations referred to in 2.2.2. is still in its infancy and, as expected is suffering teething troubles. A few states opted for a joint administration to manage both federal and state forests. Others are contending the criteria for designation of federal and state forests and division of revenue. To date six states out of 26 have implemented the resolution. Beside the fact that the concept is new, the rapid turnover in ministers of agriculture and finance in state governments also play a part in the uncertainty.
The decentralization concept is not new to Sudan. Even during the Turkish era (1824-1886) it was realized that Sudan is too big and too diverse to be ruled entirely from the centre. The idea of organization into provinces emerged then. Local government concept was further elaborated during the Anglo-Egyptian Condominium Rule (1898-1955). Several versions of local government were tried since independence in 1956. The conflict in the south and the Addis Ababa Accord to resolve it in 1972 brought the contemporary regional rule. Between 1972 and 1985 Southern Sudan was organized into three autonomous regions within one southern entity as opposed to the whole of Northern Sudan as one entity. 1994 witnessed the introduction of Federal Rule whereby the country was organized into 26 states (16 in the north and 10 in the south) each with an elected legislature and a government of 5-6 ministers headed by a wali.
The process was institutionalized through a number of presidential decrees, Acts of Parliament and a constitution adopted through public referendum in 1998.
The constitution briefly defined: The nature of the State of Sudan, Decentralization of Powers, Language, Governance & Sovereignty, National Unity, National Defense, National Economy, Natural Resources, Zakat & Taxation, Justice & Social Equity, Sciences Arts & Culture, Public Health, Sports & Environment, Youth, Family & Women, Social Behaviour, Foreign Policy and Religion. Article 108 in chapter six defined the organization of the country into 26 states and defined their capitals & boundaries.
Article 110 defined 18 federal powers including international Boundaries; Army, Police & Security; Nationality; Foreign Relations; Land; Federal Natural Resources, Mineral Resources & Subterranean Resources; Waters which Transcend State Boundaries and Antiquities.
Article 111 defined nine state powers one of which is State Lands Natural & Animal Resources and Wildlife.
Article 112 defined 18 common powers including Public Service, Survey, Tourism and Meteorology.
It is this article which stipulated the establishment through federal law of councils which represent the federal & state executive authorities to preside over the division of and planning for land and forests between the federal Government and states.
(Refer to 2.2.4.e.)
Responses to the implementation of nfp within the context of CNS by other sectors in institutional and policy terms are varied and not easy to assess. Other than that by higher education, notable respondees include
The most profound change is perhaps the realization and admission of the short-sighted-ness of previous agricultural policies which called for unqualified horizontal expansion of cropped areas. Unfortunately these policies were backed and generously financed by leading international financial agencies. Areas under irrigated and mechanized rainfed agriculture increased from a few thousand ha in 1940s to more than 8 million ha by the mid 1980s. That was at the expense of forest cover, range lands and biodiversity.
Agricultural policies of the 1990s tried to rectify this by advocating the allocation of particular areas for forestry, range and wildlife while imposing certain percentages of irrigated and rainfed agricultural projects to be left or put under forest trees in the form of shelterbelts, windbreaks, woodlots etc.
That is reflected in such important legislation as CNS and the successive investment acts since 1992. Implementation of these policies still requires tremendous efforts from agriculture, forestry, private sector, finance organizations, the public etc.
Ten years on, the agricultural policy of 1990 is being evaluated. Tentatively, it is agreed that a fair degree of self-sufficiency and food security has been achieved. That was partly brought about by development through research by ARC of technical packages most noteworthy of which are the improved high yielding varieties of sorghum and sesame for irrigated and rainfed cropping.
A marked shift from cash crops (irrigated cotton in particular) in favour of food crops (sorghum and wheat) was also an important factor. A negative aspect of the 1990s agricultural policies was their failure to reduce the need for horizontal agricultural expansion.
Sudan National Water Policy, drafted November 1999, stressed the importance of watershed management, afforestation and reforestation of degraded areas. It also advocated collaboration in this respect with neighbouring countries which share common watersheds.
The water policy starts with twelve over-arching principles and objectives. Numbers 9 and 10 were the most relevant to the environment and forestry:
(9) The environment needs to be protected in order to ensure sustainable utilization for present and future generations.
(10) The development of water resources will be undertaken in order to maximize its benefits in the public interest whilst ensuring minimum adverse impact on the environment.
Under Agriculture and Landuse, the policy lists a number of key issues and problems . Most salient of these are:
Wind and water erosion
- Land users such as farmers are obliged to leave certain areas around the schemes in rainfed and irrigated areas. Planting trees around farms will serve as shelterbelts for the crops as well as protection for the soil against wind erosion. Tree species should be multipurpose to provide fodder, building materials and fuelwood. The disappearance of trees from the rainfed areas has contributed to land degradation and deterioration of soil fertility.
Excessive removal of vegetation:
Environmental deterioration can be prevented through the following steps.
- Afforestation , reforestation and management of federal and state forest resources
- Establishment of community, private and institutional forests
- The use of shelterbelts and wind breaks around irrigated and rainfed cropping areas in terms of existing guidelines.
Soil conservation
For sustainable land-use systems, applications of the following activities should be arranged:
- Agroforestry
- Formulation and implementation of biodiversity and desertification control strategies in compliance with commitment to the CBD, FCCC and CCD.
Under Water and the Environment, the policy lists the most important issues viz:
Pollution control:
Sewage effluent when properly treated can be recycled to irrigate forest trees.
Catchment Degradation
Water policy must address care of catchment. If such catchments are naturally prone to high rates of erosion they should be artificially treated and managed to reduce sediment yield by terracing, introduction of vegetation cover, control of grazing.
Biodiversity and Wildlife:
Water resources management policy should aim at providing optimum water requirements in each ecological zone for monitoring biodiversity at its optimum levels, therefore ensuring the security of Sudan's natural heritage.
The water policy is in the process of enactment. The Ministry of Irrigation is expected to seek the funding for catchment management and to seek FNC support in that and in tree planting.
Conversely, the FNC is already seeking support from the Ministry of Irrigation in resolving the problem of irrigating forest plantations owned by the FNC and agricultural schemes. These plantations are accorded low priority in water allocation compared to agricultural crops.
There are institutional and policy changes which did not come as a result of implementation of nfp but they have great impact on it.
The institutional change worthy of mention here is the splitting of the Ministry of Agriculture, Natural Resources & Animal Wealth into two ministries in 1996. As a result the former became the Ministry of Agriculture & Forestry and a new ministry was created; the Ministry of Animal Wealth (this is the third time since independence).
More pronounced however, is the rising economic contribution of animal wealth to the national economy. Sudan is increasingly emerging as a supplier of meat and livestock to the Arab World.
The annual earnings in foreign currency from meat and livestock export amounting to some 120 million US $ makes it second to cotton (It has always been cotton, oilseeds, livestock, gum Arabic). This has resulted in more government and public attention to domestic livestock and consequently better budget allocation. This in turn has lead to better veterinary services. These in turn have lead to an increase in the national herd to reach record levels of 120 million head (sheep, cattle, goats, camels and equine). But in view of the retreating areas of natural range due to the expansion of agriculture at the expense of forestry and range, the latter are strained above carrying capacity and conflicts are quite common between annual herders and farmers and between herders and foresters. (Browse on trees and shrubs and grazing in forest lands accounts for some 70 of livestock requirements in the dry season). The efforts by all parties to improve range management are not commensurate with the problem.
There have been positive policy changes by the industrial and energy sectors since the implementation of nfp.
Kenana Sugar Company, a growing multinational concern has designated substantial area of its sugarcane farm for forestry. The area was put under irrigated Eucalyptus, A. seyal and A. senegal. The company is already studying the possibilities of pulp manufacture from bagasse and Eucalyptus. The positive response towards forestry was brought by external factors like the environmental policies of such finance institution as AfDB.
Noticeable positive changes are encountered in the energy sector. Even before Sudan started to exploit its oil reserves in 1999, several liquefied petroleum gas (LPG) companies have expanded their operations in distribution of gas cylinders for the domestic and services sectors. These include Aman. Abarssi, Iran, Total and Agip gas. Most bakeries in urban centres have shifted from firewood to electricity or gas. Brick kilns are yet to follow suit. As a result there is a remarkable drop in the amounts of fuelwood used in the country. A revision / updating of the 19 94 demand survey will perhaps quantify the shift in consumption. This is being envisaged in an energy assessment survey for 2000 to be undertaken jointly by the FNC and the Ministry of Energy.
he most striking and almost immediate tip to forestry after the commencement of Sudan’s export of oil was the cut down by 50% of LPG prices. This together with previous steps by LPG companies is apt to have positive impact on tree cover in view of the shift from the use of fuelwood. This shift is evident in the drop of charcoal prices of over 25% during 1999 and in the similar drop in FNC revenue from charcoal in particular. The envisaged energy survey will quantify this more accurately. The FNC will have to look for alternative uses for the wood that used to go for charcoal to sustain its revenue.
Perhaps the most remarkable of responses to the implementation of nfp is the recognition of forestry as an important sector and the elevation of its status. That will be elaborated under 2.3.
Response in this respect by sovereign institutions is reflected in:
A. Endorsement of Constituent Assembly in April 1989 of FNC Act and Forest Act 1989.
B. Devolution of management authority and division of forest resources between federal government and state governments in the series of Presidential Decrees since 1994 which established the federal system of government.
C. The passing by the federal council of ministers of resolution No (40) for 1997.The latter decreed that:
1. Forests which protect water that transcends the boundaries of more than one state or vital federal constructions (dams, bridges etc) and forests on the desert fringe are to be designated as federal forests to be managed by the FNC.
2. All institutional, community or private forests existing or to be established belong to the entity which established them.
3. Other forests reserved, under reservation or to be reserved are to be managed by the respective state.
4. Revenue from outside forest reserves continues to be divided in the ratio of 40%for the states; 40% for the FNC and 20% for the central reservation fund.
5. Federal forests continue to be managed by the FNC with supervision from state ministers of agriculture.
6. The FNC bears expenditure on chapter 1 ( wage & salaries), chapter 2 ( running ), chapter 3 ( replacement) and development as regards federal forests and retains all the revenue.
7. States and other forest owners shoulder costs and reap the benefits of theirs.
-Revenue from sale of forest produce from inside forest reserves is a value determined by tender. That from the sale of produce from outside forest reserves ( wood, charcoal or non-wood products from areas destined for agriculture, construction or not constituted as forest reserves ) is royalty levied vide the Royalty Ordinance of 1939, calculated periodically and approved by the Minister of Finance.
- Revenue from royalty accounts for some 57% of the gross revenue of the FNC (see table 8) and almost all the forest revenue for states other than the taxes they impose on produce from inside forest reserves.
- Up to now the FNC bears the cost of royalty collection.
- The 20% designated for the reservation fund is centralized with the FNC because most of the reservation cost is paid to the Survey Dept. or the Judiciary which are both federal by constitution.
-designation of federal and state forests and that revenue from each goes to the designated owner and the division of revenue from outside forest reserves (royalty) between the federal and the state authorities (40:40%) with 20% to go towards the process of forest reservation.
The designation by the 1998 constitution of federal and state forests and the stipulation of the establishment by federal act of a national council to lay down the criteria for federal and state forests and division of revenue.
The most pronounced economic policy change since the advent of nfp is the structural adjustment and liberalization project which started in 1992. It is due to such spin-offs as lifting of subsidies, investment concessions etc that LPG companies escalated their activities.
The role of forestry is being appreciated by most circles of the country. This is reflected in the coverage of forestry aspects by the media, and inclusion of its contribution in official economic documents. It is only during the last few years that the contribution of forestry to the GDP controversial as it is reflected in the annual economic review published by the Ministry of Finance and the Bank of Sudan.(refer to the contribution of forestry to the national economy in 1.1) There is however, growing perception by other stakeholders
Civil society is being more and more involved in forestry matters. This is perhaps due to a deeply rooted tradition of caring for trees around homes and in the agricultural system particularly in the gum belt, the overall rising environmental awareness or the deliberate steps taken by the official forestry institution to involve them or a mixture of both and others (2.2.3.d). Examples of how efforts by the government have facilitated this and incidents of involvement of civil society in forestry particularly after the implementation of the nfp include:
a. Provision of seeds /seedlings, extension packages, soft or non-interest loans and sometimes food support through such schemes as food for work for community woodlots and individual gum orchard stocking through donor assisted projects like those for gum belt rehabilitation and Fuelwood for Energy
b. Provision of seeds as part of agricultural credit for mechanized rainfed farmers in the clay plains of Eastern and Central Sudan.
The annual celebration of arbour day in the capital city and states, where seedlings are issued to school children, farmers etc. The idea was sparked off by the late El Fateh El Nour, owner of Kordofan Newspaper in 1963.
The involvement by the FNC of Khartoum, Gezira and Juba universities in the design and implementation of demand survey, NFRI, Jebel Marra management plans etc.
The Umda (Mayor) of Um Kaddada , on the desert fringe in Darfur used his social and charismatic influence to protect forests around the village.
A retired army officer, used his own resources and simple devices like donkey drawn water barrels to arbour a whole avenue in Omdurman.
The efforts by such newspapers as El Ray Al Aam to devote a weekly page to the environment including forestry.
Prior to nfp implementation the involvement of private sector was restricted to small-size sawmills, carpentry workshops and gum orchards on the sand plains.
Since the advent of the nfp, private sector partnership in forestry widened to include:
Sugar schemes such as Kenana, Assalaya, W. Sennar, Guneid, and N. Halfa have each established irrigated plantations.
A Saudi Company, Gandil is now active in tree planting for Gum production.
Many smallholder farmers around Kordofan, in Gezira, Rahad Scheme, Jebel Marra etc have established irrigated plantations.
Mechanized scheme owners in Gadaref are now involved in tree planting around the schemes for gum production and environmental rehabilitation.
The only substantial involvement of women in forestry on record was after the nfp implementation. As individuals and community they got involved in:
With regard to women’s involvement in small wood lots in Kassala State, some incentives were advanced to their groups in the way of free tree seedlings, land preparation and food for work. The revenue from the sale of wood from the wood lots is shared equally by the group members, after deduction of nominal water cost.
Four women groups are active in the environmental cause and forestry viz Babikir Badri Scientific Association for Women Studies, Badawena for development of rural women, Sudanese Development Association and El Salah Association (University of Gezira).
Perhaps the only NGO involved in tree planting activities and awareness raising before the implementation of nfp was the Sudanese Horticultural Society. It continued the role and more actively afterwards. Other international and local NGOs appeared on the scene after the nfp. These include SOS-Sahel (UK), the Sudanese Environment Conservation Society (SECS), Community Forestry Association (supported by Ford Foundation), Plan Sudan International, Oxfam, Environmentalist Society, Area Development Schemes ADS (supported by GOS and UNDP) and Near East Foundation.
1 ) The definition of woodlands and forests used in tables (1) and (2) is obviously different from that used by SOFO. The former includes areas with less than 1 m³ volume/ha. Which is less than 10% crown cover
