Contribution to employment

Although there are no precise figures available, the fisheries sector provides direct and indirect employment to hundreds of thousands of people. Most of this employment is generated in coastal areas often far from urban settlements, representing further economic and social benefits that also address regional development requirements. The nature of the emplo¡yment provided by the sector varies with the type of exploitation. Small-scale fisheries are labour intensive and poor families benefit greatly from this type of employment. The sector demands other categories of labour, from skilled crews for sophisticated navigational and fishing technologies on board vessels to specialized workers for the processing industry.

2. CAPTURE FISHERIES AND AQUACULTURE

2.1 Regional fishery primary production (by type of exploitation and main fishing countries)

In 1994, the region´s harvest of fish and shellfish form capture fisheries and aquauculture reached a level of 23 million tns. The production of 1994 represents and increase of 5.1 million tons or about 27 % compared to the 1993 production of 18 million tns.

Marine production accounted for almost the total of the increase (Figure 5). The production increase in marine waters was due mainly to higher fishing yields of anchoveta (Peru and Chile) in the Southeast Pacific. Mariculture increased by 46 000 tons. The increase in inland waters production was due to aquaculture and inland capture fisheries. The first mentioned increased from 105 000tons in 1993 to 120 000 tons in 1994. Inland fisheries landings grew from 487 000 tons to 500 000 tons during the same period.

Fishery production by country shows highly concentrated geographical patterns (Figure 6) converging on two of them, Chile and Peru, and on a single species group, small pelagics.

2.2 Marine fisheries

Latin American and Caribbean countries have direct access to, and concentrate most of their fishing activities in, four major world marine fishing areas: the Western Central Atlantic (Area 31), the South West Atlantic (Area 41), the Eastern Central Pacific (Area 77), and the South East Pacific (Area 87). Some countries are also involved in scientific research programmes and/or participate in some fishing activities, although with negligible catches, in the Antarctic Atlantic (Area 48) and the Antarctic Pacific (Area 88).

Following the severe decline in regional and global fish production caused by the collapse of the Peruvian anchoveta fishery more than two decades ago, total fish production in these four main marine areas has increased consistently, from 6.6 million mt in 1973 to 25.6 million mt in 1994 (Figure 1 in Annex). Most of this production is due to catches by Latin American and Caribbean countries, but other nations also have direct access to, and/or have long range fleets fishing in, these areas.

The USA is the main other nation with coastlines facing Areas 31 and 77, where it takes a major share of total production. Several other nations also exploit resources in the above four areas, mostly through the operation of long range fleets. However, despite the increased operations of distant water long range fleets, coastal-based fisheries from Latin American and Caribbean countries have been expanding their fishing activities in these areas.

Total production of Latin American and Caribbean countries exploiting these four areas increased from slightly over 500 hundred thousand mt in 1950 to 5.0 million mt in 1973, and to 23.2 million mt in 1994. The share of total production by area taken by these countries has also increased from an average 32.8% for all four areas in 1950 to 75.2% in 1973, and to 90.9% in 1994.

Of major relevance is the increase in total production and in the share taken by Latin American and Caribbean countries in the Eastern Central Pacific (Area 77) and the Western Central Atlantic (Area 31). The total share of the Latin American and Caribbean countires countries increased from slightly over 10% at the beginning of the 1950s to over 40% and 70% in 1994 in the Western Central Atlantic and the Eastern Central Pacific respectively (Figure 2 in Annex). Changes in production in these two areas have been mainly due to increased operations by Latin American and Caribbean coastal states, coupled with the levelling off in total catches taken by other coastal states (mostly the USA) in the same areas, and to a lesser extent the displacement of long range fleets from other nations.

In the South West Atlantic (Area 41) and the South East Pacific (Area 87), total fish production used to be taken almost entirely by Latin American coastal countries. While their total production has increased consistently over the years, long range foreign fleets also increased their share of production, especially during the mid 1960's and 1980's in Area 41, and the late 1970's and 1980's in Area 87.

The most productive fishing area in volume terms in the Latin American and Caribbean region is the South East Pacific, which registered a record total production of 19.9 million mt in 1994, followed by the Western Central Atlantic (2.2 million mt), the South West Atlantic (2.1 million mt), and the Eastern Central Pacific (1.3 million mt). Although the total of 25.6 million mt represents 23.5% of total world fish production, a sizeable contribution, it is still below the record high of 25% recorded in 1970, when total catches of Peruvian anchoveta were the highest on records, and total world fish production was well below current levels.

While the South East Pacific is by far the most productive by volume, catches in this area are dominated by small pelagics, which tend to have a low market value. High valued shrimps and lobsters tend to be major target species in commercial fisheries in the Western Central Atlantic, while squids, hakes and other demersal species with relatively high value are the major target species in the South West Atlantic. Fishing in the Eastern Central Pacific focuses on small and large pelagics, as well as on shrimps and to a lesser extent coastal demersal species.

The overall abundance, total yield and state of exploitation of specific fish stocks and fisheries in these four major areas vary according to specific location, fish stock and type of fishery. In general, most stocks tend to be moderately to fully exploited, and overall prospects for further expanding current catch levels are limited. Furthermore, several important stocks have shown relatively large variability in abundance and maximum potential yield, thereby possibly influencing short to medium-term catch projections both up and down. A general review by area follows.

Western Central Atlantic (Area 31)

A total of 26 states from the area have recorded landings. The United States dominates fisheries of the three major categories - marine finfishes, crustaceans and molluscs - with total landings approaching 1.3 million mt out of total landings in the area of approximately 2.2 million mt in 1994. Total landings increased fairly steadily from 1950, with a peak of over 2.5 million mt in l984 (Figure 7). A primary reason for the decline in landings between 1983 and 1992 was the drop in landings of the Gulf and Atlantic menhadens by the USA from over 1 million mt to under 500 000 mt (Figure. 7). In 1994, menhaden landings were nearly 800 000 mt.

Landings of unidentified marine fishes increased dramatically in 1994, making up approximately 35% of total finfish landings, excluding menhaden. Without accurate data on the landings and associated information on effort, it is impossible to assess the status of stocks. However, besides other finfish species, there is general concern about the considerable increase in recent landings of sharks and rays, which peaked in 1994 at 33 000 mt. In addition, many species of reef fish that support important local fisheries, have been reported as fully or overexploited, including Nassau grouper Epinephulus striatus and jewfish E. Itajara.

There are three pelagic fisheries in the area: large offshore pelagics with oceanic distribution, large coastal pelagics with regional distribution, and small pelagics. The first group includes fish such as the billfishes, tunas and swordfish. Most of these species are assessed by the International Commission for Atlantic Tunas (ICCAT) and most are considered fully or overexploited. Therefore any plans to expand fisheries for these species within the area should be made taking into account ICCAT findings and results. Landings of species in ICAAT Group 36 - tunas, bonitos billfishes and others - have shown steady increases over the last decade, reaching nearly 100 000 mt in 1993.

Fisheries for small pelagics, apart from that for menhaden, are largely based on clupeoids, particularly round sardinella Sardinella aurita. Landings of small pelagics have generally tended to increase since the early 1970s. The flying fish, Hirundichthys affinis, makes up only a low proportion of landings of small pelagics, but is important to the south eastern Caribbean states; at least seven island states operate fisheries for the species and there is considerable interest in increasing exploitation.

Crustacean fisheries in this area are dominated by those for the Caribbean spiny lobster Panulirus argus and penaeid shrimps, the latter particularly from the Guianas-Brazil sub-region. Landings of the spiny lobster have increased fairly consistently since 1950, with the fishery dominated by Cuba and the Bahamas. Landings have tended to level off at between 25 000 and 30 000 mt this decade. While there have been assessments of the resource and imposition of management regulations in many countries, the spiny lobster is generally considered to be overexploited in many countries and a more holistic and effective management strategy is required for the region. While there have been no thorough assessments of the major shrimp stocks outside the USA, it is generally considered that they are not overexploited and landings for the group as a whole have tended to remain fairly stable in recent years (Figure 3).

Several mollusc species support valuable fisheries in the area, in particular USA fisheries for cupped oysters and calico scallops. In 1994, recorded landings for these species were 146 000 mt and 74 000 mt respectively, the latter showing some recovery after the dramatic decline of the early 1990s. The queen conch (Strombus gigas) fishery gives some cause for concern as stocks are considered overexploited in most countries in the area. As a result, the species has been listed on Appendix II of CITES. Landings have increased substantially over the last 25 years, but declined somewhat after a peak at nearly 8 000 mt in 1984.

South West Atlantic (Area 41)

Before 1987, in wich total catches registered a record high of 2.4 million mt, total production in this area had been increasing with some annual fluctuation at an average rate of 9% per year. In 1994, total production slumped to 2.1 million mt (Figure 3 in Annex). The dominant species are squids and hakes, followed by basses, congers and other demersals. Until the early 1980s, this area was among the few major fishing areas of the world with large potential for expansion. Several mostly industrialized long range fisheries have developed since, and most fish stocks are now considered fully exploited while some are or have been overexploited over the past few years.

Most of the reported expansion in production in this area is due to higher catches of hake and, more recently, of other demersals and squids caught in the Patagonian shelf and slope area. The Argentinean hake (Merluccius hubsii) sustains one of the most important fisheries off Argentina and Uruguay. After reaching a maximum of 520 000 mt in 1991, annual catches of this species levelled off and are now diminishing slightly. This stock is considered to be fully exploited.

Other demersal fish stocks also contribute a large share of total fish production in this area, with total landings in the order of 500 000 mt per year. Within this general group, coastal demersals such as the white mouth croaker (Micropogonias furnieri), the Argentine croaker (Umbrina canosai) and the weakfishes (Cynoscion spp.) have reported relatively high and stable catches over the past few years. There are several stocks of these species groups in the region, and most of them seem to be moderately to fully exploited. In 1994, catches of these three species groups were 78 000 mt, 21 000 mt and 61 000 mt respectively. These stocks are mostly exploited by Brazil, Argentina and Uruguay.

Deep water demersals such as the southern blue whiting (Micromesistius australis), Patagonian grenadier (Macruronus magellanicus), pink cusk eel (Genypterus blacodes) and Patagonian toothfish (Dissostichus eleginoides) are particularly abundant in the Southern Patagonian shelf and slope area, where they are exploited by long range fleets from the region as well as from distant areas. Most of these stocks are moderately exploited. Annual catches have been slightly variable due to possible changes in availability and shifts in fishing pressure. In 1994, total catches of the above four species groups were 105 000 mt, 46 000 mt, 21 000 mt and 6 000 mt, respectively.

There are two main stocks of small pelagics in this area. The Brazilian sardinella (Sardinella brasiliensis) has been overfished for several years and has also been affected by adverse environmental conditions. From a range of 120 000 mt to 230 000 mt per year, catches fell to 32 000 mt by 1990. Although catches recovered to 85 000 mt in 1994, stocks still seem to be poor.

In the same general area, but further south, off Uruguay and Argentina, the Argentine anchoita (Engraulis anchoita) is a rare example of an underexploited stock. While catches have been stable in the order of 20 000 mt per year, available estimates suggest a potential several times higher.

Catches of tunas and other large pelagics are increasing slowly in the area. Total catches from this species group were 70 000 mt in 1994, and there might still be some room for further expansion. Catches of sharks and rays have also been increasing slightly, reaching almost 55 000 mt in 1994.

Another very important fishery in this area is that for squids, mostly Argentine shortfin squid (Illex argentinus) and common squid (Loligo sp.). The overall abundance and actual catches of these species have varied greatly since fisheries started some 10-15 years ago, and total catches declined to 560 000 mt in 1994 after reaching a maximum of 760 000 mt in 1989. These stocks are exploited in the Patagonian shelf and slope area by long range fleets of different nations, and are most likely fully to overexploited.

Shrimps, prawns, lobsters and crabs also sustain important fisheries in the whole area, from the tropical to the sub-Antarctic zone. Altogether, this species group have been yielding total catches of almost 100 000 mt per year, an important figure considering their high market value. In most cases, these stocks are considered fully to overexploited.

Eastern Central Pacific (Area 77)

Total fish production in this area registered a sustained rate of increase from the mid 1950s to 1981, when it reached 1.9 million mt. Since then, total catches have been very variable with a general downward trend, although between 1993 and 1994, total production increased slightly from 1.27 to 1.33 million mt. Most of the reported increase comes from greater catches of large and small pelagics, such as tunas, sardines and anchovies, while most of the recent annual variability and lower production were due to changes in the abundance and overall production of sardines and anchovies (Figure 4 in Annex). Quantities of unidentified miscellaneous marine fishes have also increased. Of particular interest is the sharp drop in total catches of almost all species groups in 1983 and 1984, when the area was hit by one of the strongest "El Niño" phenomenon of the century.

The noticeable decline in total production of small pelagics is mostly due to the reduced abundance of Californian sardine (Sardinops sagax caeruleus) and Californian anchovy (Engraulis mordax), which has particularly damaged Mexican fisheries. Although the two species have been subject to heavy exploitation in some parts of their distribution range, the decline seems to be mainly related to natural "regime" changes that have also been reported for similar species groups elsewhere.

Total catches of Californian sardine dropped from peak catches of 467 000 mt in 1991 to 266 000 mt in 1994. However, the most dramatic drop in catches is for the Californian anchovy: total catches declined from 324 000 mt in 1950 to 25 000 mt in 1952. Catches subsequently fluctuated for several years, reaching maximum values of 374 000 mt and 424 000 mt in 1980 and 1981, to then decline steadily to only 4 700 and 3 900 mt respectively in 1993 and 1994.

Other important small pelagics in this area are the Pacific anchoveta (Cetengraulis mysticetus) and the Pacific thread herring (Opisthonema libertate), caught off Panama. Catches of these species are highly variable. The maximum recorded catch of Pacific anchoveta was 241 00 mt in 1985, followed by low values in the order of 39 000 and 62 000 mt in 1988 and 1990, and 72 000 mt in 1994. The maximum recorded catch of Pacific thread herring was 40 000 mt in 1988, followed by 18 000 mt in 1989 and a new high of 41 000 mt in 1994. The Pacific anchoveta is probably moderately to fully exploited, while the Pacific thread herring is moderately exploited off Panama and underexploited elsewhere in its distribution range.

Tunas and other large pelagics are an important species group with an extended coastal and oceanic distribution in this area. Total production has been increasing slightly with some fluctuation in the range of 283 000 mt to 516 000 mt per year over the past two decades. In 1994, total catch was 413 000 t. The main regional fishing countries are Mexico and Venezuela, and other main fishing countries are USA, Japan, Rep. of Korea, and other Asian countries. The main species within this group is the yellowfin tuna (Thunnus albacares), which has been yielding relatively stable catches in the order of 210 000 t to 280 000 t per year over recent years, with 234 000 mt in 1994. The bigeye tuna (Thunnus obesus) has been yielding total catches of 70 000 mt to 100 000 mt per year, with 77 000 mt in 1994. Catches of skipjack tuna (Katsuwonus pelamis) and albacore (Thunnus alalunga) have also been relatively stable, with total reported catches of 52 000 mt and 12 000 mt in 1994, respectively. The yellowfin tuna is considered to be fully exploited, while most of the other tuna stocks are moderately exploited.

Shrimps and prawns sustain particularly valuable and important fisheries throughout the area. Total production of this species group increased steadily to a maximum of 100 000 mt in 1994. However, all of this increase is due to the expansion of aquaculture, since apart from deep water shrimps, which are virtually unexploited, most if not all the main wild stocks of shrimps and prawns in this area are overexploited.

Deep water demersals are almost unexploited, although there is no clear indication of particularly abundant stocks of this species group in this area. In general, coastal demersal stocks are moderately exploited in direct fisheries, but tend to be heavily to overexploited by shrimp fisheries, where they frequently represent a large proportion of the by-catch, especially as juveniles. Squid also seems to relatively abundant in the area, but is virtually unexploited.

South East Pacific (Area 87)

Fish production in this area has experienced large changes and fluctuations over the past forty years. From 167 000 mt in 1950, total fish production increased to 13.8 million mt in 1970, declined to 3.2 million mt in 1973, and increased to a new record of 19.9 million mt in 1994. This pattern of production was accompanied by considerable annual fluctuations and major shifts in the species composition of mostly small pelagics, such as anchovies, sardines, jacks and mackerels (Figure 5 in Annex). While small pelagics clearly dominate the fisheries scenario in this area, noticeable changes have also occurred in other species groups, particularly hakes and other demersals and, most recently squids. To a large extent, the reported variability in abundance and species composition in this area is caused by changing environmental conditions, often associated with changes in the "El Niño" Southern Oscillation (ENSO).

Total production in this area was, and still is, dominated by the Peruvian anchoveta (Engraulis ringens). Until the early 1970s, all of the reported ups and downs in total production were due to changes in the abundance and resulting catches of this species. After reaching a record high of 13.1 million mt in 1970, total catches of Peruvian anchoveta fell to a record low of 1.7 million mt in 1973, and to a further low of 94 000 mt in 1984. The stock has since recovered, and total catches increased again to 11.9 million mt in 1994.

While heavy fishing did play a major role in the collapse of the Peruvian anchoveta fishery in the early 1970s, it is also recognized that the 1972-73 "El Niño" was a primary cause of recruitment failure and stock decline. The decline was made worse and prolonged by the lack of adequate management action to drastically reduce or regulate fishing pressure. Given the depleted state of anchoveta stocks, the much stronger 1982-83 "El Niño" did not have such a severe impact on total production in this area, but it did reduce Peruvian anchoveta stocks to their lowest historical levels. The fortunate coincidence of favourable environmental conditions and controlled fishing enabled stocks to recover and catches to begin increasing again. Although the two sub-stocks of Peruvian anchoveta are now reported to be fully exploited, their known high natural variability and poor resilience to heavy fishing mean that special monitoring and control measures are required to prevent overfishing.

Other small pelagics such as the South American (sardine) pilchard (Sardinops sagax sagax), the Chilean horse mackerel (Trachurus symmetricus murphy), and the mackerel (Scomber japonicus) started increasing after the Peruvian anchoveta fishery collapsed in 1972-73. Now the South American (sardine) pilchard and the Chilean horse mackerel in particular are major components of total fish production in this area.

Catches from the sardines group increased from slightly over 100 000 mt per year in the 1960s to 483 000 mt in 1974, and to a maximum of 6.6 million mt in 1985 (mostly due to catches of the South American (sardine) pilchard). After 1985, catches started to decline as a result of an apparent long-term "regime" change in abundance of the main stocks in the area. The South American (sardine) pilchard is considered to be fully exploited, although it might have been overexploited in part of its distribution range.

The increase in the abundance and distribution range of the Chilean horse mackerel is also worth noting. Until the end of the 1960s, there was no evidence of this being a particularly abundant stock, and annual catches barely exceeded 30 000 mt per year. However, in the early 1970s, this species started to appear consistently as by-catch until Chilean, Peruvian and ex-USSR fishing fleets begin targeting it. Catches increased to almost 4 million mt by 1990, and to 4.2 million mt in 1994

2.3 Inland fisheries

The use of inland fish resources for food in Latin America is highly localized in areas near the main water courses. Exploitation of natural stocks is generally low and in many areas, the aquatic systems themselves are not as productive as in other tropical regions. Some areas such as the Amazonian fisheries around the major urban centres of Manaus and Iquitos or the fisheries of the Orinoco deltas are sufficiently heavily exploited as to show signs of overfishing. In other areas such as the Magdalena river in Colombia, overfishing is aggravated by damage to the aquatic environment from human activities in the basin.

Three main tendencies can be detected across the region. In the south (Argentina, Chile and parts of Brazil), food fisheries are unimportant and have virtually become insignificant in certain cases, such as the Argentinian "sabalerias". In these areas, growing pressure from environmental lobbies and from urban-based recreational fishing interests has closed the fisheries to commercial exploitation, and they are now reserved mainly for recreational and subsistence fishing despite severe protein malnutrition. This area includes Pantanal of Brazil, and Bolivia, where there is a commercial fishery potential of over 100 000 mt per year. In the central part of the continent, commercial fishery exploitation in rivers and reservoirs is generally low. The reservoirs of the Brazilian Parana have proved negative for exploitation as they are extremely unproductive for fisheries. In the northern part of the area and particularly in the drought polygon of Brazil, in Cuba and in Mexico, there has been a growing trend to manage reservoirs intensively through stocking and species introductions, which has led these areas to record the highest production in recent years.

After a period of rapid growth in fish production from inland waters up to 1987 when combined regional catches topped 580 000 mt, there was a period on stability or even decline to about 450 000 mt in 1991. This level of production remains far below the potential yield for the inland waters of the continent and is much lower than reported harvests in similar areas of the tropics in Africa and Asia. This may be due to poor statistics or to generally low productivity, and considerable modification of rivers by reservoirs. There only seems to be slight interest in inland fisheries and large gains in fisheries production are possible under careful management. However, production increases in Cuba and Mexico after the introduction of tilapias and carps indicate the potential for enhancement in Latin American reservoirs.

2.4 Aquaculture

Total regional aquaculture production in 1994 was about 472 429 mt (Figure 6 in Annex) with a value of US $ 1.885 million (Figure 7 in Annex), representing 1.86% and 4.73% of world production by volume and value respectively. In the same year, aquaculture contributed less than 2% to total regional fish production from capture and culture fisheries. Chile, Ecuador, Mexico, Brazil, Colombia and Cuba accounted for 91.8% of aquaculture production volume (Figure. 8).

Ecuador, Chile, Mexico, Honduras, Brazil and Colombia accounted for the 90.3% of value

Shrimp and salmon export oriented (USA, Japan and Europe) culture alone accounted for 82% of the total value of regional aquaculture production in 1994.

Shrimp culture has increased very rapidly since 1986. In 1994, 10 countries produced more than 1 000 mt per year; the main producer was Ecuador (66.6%), followed by Mexico (9.1%), Colombia (6%), Honduras (5.5%) and Panama (4.1%). In that year, Ecuador produced 11.4% of world shrimp aquaculture production.

Salmon culture has developed almost exclusively in Chile, where 1987 production was 2 151 mt. Production in 1994 totalled 101 918 mt, representing 12.7% of world salmon production.

Profit margins of both shrimp and salmon culture have been decreasing in recent years following the typical evolution of an industry of this kind characterized initially by relatively high profit margins and very high risks. Altough technologies have progressed all problems are not yet solved. For example, some components of technology, such as diseases caused important loses in the Ecuador shrimp industry in 1992 (similar or even worse problems occurred also in Taiwan in 1988-89, in Thailand 1993 and more recently in China and India). The growth of industrial aquaculture in the regions faces a number of constraints: less land availability, a highly volatile market (specially for shrimp), increasing competition for artificial feeds, higher labor costs, and growing concern about environmental consequences of aquaculture exploitation. However, present economic growth trends result in higher purchasing power among certain sections of the population, opening new and promising prospects for aquaculture products on local markets.

Freshwater fish culture accounted for 18% of total aquaculture production in the region in 1994. The main groups were tilapia (42.0%), trout (25.0%), carps(17.9%), colossoma (5.4%) and catfishes (0.9%). Redfish culture has grown rapidly in recent owing to the high price it fetches on export markets.

It is sometimes difficult to distinguish between production statistics from pond culture and those derived from culture based fisheries in reservoirs. Latin America has about 11 million ha of water surface in reservoirs. In 1992, estimated production from fisheries and pond-based fisheries of these water bodies was 148 000 mt, which is considered 12% of their potential. The main constraints to development are managerial and closely linked to institutional shortcomings.

In 1994, mollusc culture accounted for 13% of total regional aquaculture production. The main groups were: oysters (69.7%), mussels (17%), pectinids (12.1%).

Production of marine plants has also increased, represented mainly by the algae Gracilaria (5% of regional aquaculture production). There is good regional potential to develop this type of culture. Marine fish culture is just beginning in countries like Chile with the turbot (Psetta maxima). Other marine fish cultures are still in the experimental phase: Pampanos (Trachinotus spp.), robalos (Centropomus spp.), pargos (Lutjanus spp.), mugils (Mugilidae spp.), corvina (Scianops ocellatus) and sparids (Sparus auratus, Archosargus rhomboidales). Technology for culturing corvina and robalo is well developed and commercial activity should start in the near future.

In synthesis, industrial export-oriented aquaculture has expanded considerably in the region and has moderate growth potential. Considering existing potential, other types of aquaculture such as culture-based fisheries in reservoirs, freshwater fish culture, culture of molluscs and aquatic plants culture, have all grown slower than expected. Aquaculture potential in the region is not only determined by existing physical resources (water, land, coasts, temperature, agriculture), but also by the existing institutional setup, research, and entrepreneurial capacity. Most of the reasons for slow aquaculture growth originate in these latter factors. One important consequence is that socially-oriented aquaculture as well as aquaculture aimed at producing cheap products for more disadvantaged socio-economic groups, have grown only moderately.

2.5 Fish utilization and marketing

Fish utilization in the Latin America and Caribbean region as a whole is well established. One approach to the analysis of fish utilization starts by distinguishing between fish supply for direct and for indirect human consumption. Figure 10 shows the relatively independent evolution of both categories from 1961 to 1993. Fish for feed supply has fluctuated mainly due to variations in the main resource base for the industry, i.e., anchoveta and sardine abundance. Fish supply for food, although a minor part of total fish supply (31 % in 1973), has grown steadily during the same period, not only accompanying trends in population growth but also increasing per caput fish supplies (Figure 10).

The abundance of small pelagic fish, which provides the basis for an important reduction industry in Latin America, results in a clear distinction between two types of utilization: utilization of fish for direct human consumption in its various forms of presentation (fresh, frozen, cured or canned) and products from whole fish to minced products; and converted for indirect human consumption, where fishmeal and fish oil are used in the nutrition these are fed to animals which subsequently reach the human level of the food chain. Chile, Peru, and to a lesser extent Ecuador, use the bulk of its landings of small pelagics as raw material destined for fishmeal. Other uses for bait and pet food do not represent substantial shares of fisheries output in the region. Long-standing efforts have been made to reduce quantities used for fishmeal production and to find alternative products suitable for direct human consumption, unfortunately with no sustained success or economic feasibility to date.

A key challenge for the region is to increase the utilization of small pelagics for direct human consumption among low income groups.

The disposition of catches for direct human consumption shows the important share of fresh fish with over 50% and frozen and canned in the order of 20% each. The utilization of fish supply by processing type followed historical patterns determined by the resources available and market forces, particularly international demand. Domestic demand acquired an important role only as a result of specific economic policies and instruments. Later on, among other factors, higher incomes and urban development meant that some fish products significantly increased their share in domestic markets, often because processors succesfully adapted technology. Today, although the international market still is the most important, the fishing industry carefully observes the potentials of domestic markets.

Processed fish utilization for food is naturally influenced by the availability of certain resources. Frozen fish utilization developed almost all over the continent. The shrimp fisheries and freezing industry in countries along the Pacific and Atlantic coasts of Central and northern South America deserve particular mention. In contrast, the marine fisheries of countries bordering the Atlantic ocean have considerable groundfish resources which support processing industries supplying national regional and international markets with products for human consumption. Efforts to manufacture consumer products for sale in supermarkets in Europe have been successful.

There are also sub-regional contrasts in fish utilization. In the Caribbean countries by tourism and the related necessity to import modern products in addition to the mainly cured traditional products. On the other hand, fish utilization as feed is not important.

The many urban agglomerations in the region require special marketing logistics such as central wholesale markets and low cost retailing facilities to keep marketing costs and products within reach of urban consumers. A related feature is the existence of social support systems, including eating places for low income consumers, which can represent an important marketing channel for fishery products.

2.6 Domestic consumption and nutrition

Fish consumption levels in the region vary widely among countries and within countries. Factors which influence consumption include general availability of fish from national sources, consumer preferences which often benefit consumption of other meats, traditional consumption habits oriented towards certain fish products as in most Caribbean Islands, and consumer purchasing power. Therefore, in general, consumption levels in small island states and in coastal areas are markedly higher than in areas far from landing zones. Furthermore, consumption in rural areas is generally lower than in large cities, where volumes consumed may vary considerably among different sections of the population according to income levels and purchasing power. Imports play a role in domestic fish supplies in Brazil and some of the Caribbean islands.

As a consequence, average per caput fish consumption of 9 kgs in 1993 is lower than the world average of 13.3 kgs. However, although the average applies for most of the regional population, about 5% of the regional population (Caribbean English-speaking countries plus Chile) have a per caput annual consumption above 30 kgs on average. On the other hand, current per caput consumption levels fall far below 5 kgs in most Central American countries and landlocked countries such as Bolivia and Paraguay.

The contribution of fishery products to animal protein supplies is also less critical than in other developing countries (see Figure 11) . There is scope for fishery products to provide a bigger share.

Trends in fish consumption in the region show a slight increase over population growth. Current policies mean that fish products highly appreciated on international markets will be less available to low income groups. If fish products became available at accessible prices, fish consumption could make a significant contribution to food availability for many low income groups in urban and rural areas. To this end, it would be necessary to rationalize the urban marketing systems by reducing costs and margins, promote the consumption of fish as wholesome food, and to educate consumers and vendors so that the specific advantages of fish as food can be appreciated.

Demand and supply

The main factors influencing demand of fish and fish products are population growth, economic growth, prices of fish and fish alternatives, fish-eating traditions, competition of non-food uses, the pace of urbanization, etc.

In recent years, population growth has been the main factor to influence demand for fish and fish products. Fish supply has slightly exceeded the requirements of population growth. In the absence of specific reasons to explain increases in the demand for fish and fish products, this fact could be related to the higher incomes enjoyed by specific social groups.

Economic growth and related increases in income is also important in influencing fish demand. While economic prosperity might have a limited impact on demand in the short term, it will be influential in the medium and long term.

The previous two paragraphs emphasized the importance of disposable consumer incomes in consumption of fish and fish products. Equally important are the prices of these products and competition from alternative protein suppliers, such as white meat and diary products. Chicken in particular has proved to be very competitive against fish products in the region. Studies in the region have shown, have shown that competitive pricing is a determining factor in consumption patterns. Compared to meat and chicken, fish prices are relatively high and therefore disadvantageous for fish consumption. Fish prices are affected by variables such as seasonal marketing conditions, distribution, infrastructure, costs of inputs (particularly fuel), and domestic market supply. Domestic supplies are often lean in the region as prime products are exported and the bulk of small pelagic harvests is destined for reduction in fish meal industries.

Cultural and traditional values attributed to food products often preclude nutritional considerations in consumption patterns. In Latin American countries like Argentina and Uruguay, people are more used to eating non-fish sources of protein such as red meat, while in Central American countries like Honduras, consumers prefer rice and beans. On the other hand, Caribbean islands have a more distinct fish-eating tradition. Consumers in that region have a preference for fresh fish, including fresh-refrigerated or fresh-cooled, followed by frozen fish products. Canned products are often in demand on distant markets because they are easy to preserve and consume. In some countries, fish is traditionally consumed in a processed form (cured, dried and salted). During Lent (Holy Week), the whole continent registers a peak demand for fish products.

Ready access to main markets is considered an important factor for fish consumption. Rapid urban expansion throughout the region provides important outlets through fish markets and fish and seafood restaurants catering for large numbers of people.

The regional fishery structure is heavily influenced by international markets. Rising prices and a gradually longer list of species demanded on international markets mean that high value products become scarce at domestic markets. The food products substituted for exported species are not necessarily other fish species or fish products. In an open economy, prices tend to follow those on the international market and traditionally consumed high-value species become an expensive food item.

Regional demand for fish and fish products seems to have been strongly influenced by the rate of population growth. Considering all other factors influencing demand as being constant, it is estimated that demand will need to increase by 1.7 million mt to maintain current per caput consumption in the year 2010. Adding to the previous calculations the eventual effects of economic growth and correlated increases in disposable personal income the additional demand for year 2010 would be of of 2.7 million mt.

Total fish supplies in the region amounted to 24 million mt in 1994, approximately 70 % of which was directed to non-food uses (small pelagics for fish meal). A review of the potential increases in fish supplies shows that commercially exploited marine fish species are generally in an advanced stage of exploitation: often intensely or fully exploited, and in some cases overexploited. Improved management of these resources, including regional or sub-regional cooperation in management in many cases, is urgently required. Otherwise there is a real danger that already over-exploited stocks will be depleted to essentially unproductive levels, worsening the already precarious situation of communities and economies which depend on fishing.

Increased landings could be expected from cephalopods and some demersal and small pelagics species. There may be an expansion of inland fisheries for non or underutilized species in some of the river systems and reservoirs of South America. Aquaculture will have to overcome well known constraints to became an important component of regional fish supply.

Another source of increased fish supply could be the improved utilization of discarded fish bycatch. Total fish discards in the region have been estimated annually at 5.8 million mt, 21.5% of total estimated world discards.

It may be assumed that any substantive increase in supplies of food fish in the region should come from small pelagics, increased exploitation and utilization for direct human consumption, improved utilization of bycatches, reduction of post-harvest losses, aquaculture development and appropriate fisheries management. Supplies could also be increased through improved management of resources, including rebuilding of some depleted stocks.

However, to consider the viability of the alternatives that could help maintain or increase the contribution of fish to food security in the region, several factors need to be considered: difficulties regarding the technical and socio-economic feasibility of exploiting small pelagics, bycatches and discards for human consumption; poor fisheries policy, planning, research and management framework and practices; the limited infrastructure and operational modalities of distribution and marketing systems; and the limited integration of aquaculture in government structure and policy frameworks.

2.7 International trade of fishery products

Latin American countries are main exporting countries of fish and fishery products. Latin American countries alone account for 11% of world exports, or for 23% of fish exports from developing countries. Chile is by far the main exporter of fish products in the region with over US$ 1 000 million in exports value in 1994. Argentina and Peru ranked second and third with an exports figure of about US$ 700 million (see figure 12).

For exports by commodity groups, the increase of exports of fresh and frozen fish products is not significant, while exports of crustaceans (shrimp) have increased steadily in recent times (Figure 13).Fishmeal and oil also became more important as a foreign exchange earner for the Latin American/Caribbean region. Shrimp is the main fish product exported by the region, with exports exceeding US$ 1.3 thousand million in 1994. Fishmeal is also an important product for export with generating income to the producing countries for about US$ 1 thousand million. For dried fish, the Latin American and Caribbean countries concerned depend heavily on imports from outside the region.

Chile and Peru dominate the world fishmeal market, with exports going mainly to the Asian market. Mexico and Ecuador are exporters of shrimp. The bulk of Latin American shrimp exports goes to the US market; only in recent years have Ecuadorian shrimp exporters managed to penetrate the European shrimp market. While the Mexican shrimp export industry is still dominated by wild shrimp, Ecuador almost exclusively exports cultured shrimp products.

Tuna has traditionally been one of the main fish species exported by the region. However, the enforcement of the "dolphin-safe" policy by the US Government in 1991 created substantial problems for the Latin American tuna fisheries. Not only did the US market close for tuna products considered not "dolphin-safe", but other countries could no longer import from Latin America without running the risk of their tuna products being banned as well on US markets. The Andean Pact countries benefit from duty-free entry for their fisheries products on the EU market. These countries are taking advantage of this concession for tuna loins, which are normally subject to a tariff of 24% when entering the EU market.

Although intra-regional trade is still quite limited, the setting up of the MERCOSUR common market has had an important impact. In recent years, the Brazilian market opened up for fishery products from Uruguay and Argentina, which under the MERCOSUR agreement were allowed to enter the market duty-free. There is a certain regional trade of canned pilchard from Peru to other South American countries, though the volume and value of this trade continues to be limited.

As a group, the importance of Latin American countries as fish importing countries is generally limited. Imports into the region are valued at US$ 700 million, or a mere 2% of world imports. The main importing country is Brazil, which imports mostly groundfish from neighbouring countries and "bacalao" from Norway. Imports exceed exports by US$ 200 million .

The Latin American region is mainly geared to the US market as the natural outlet for its products, and not much change is expected in the coming years. Through its boom in aquaculture production, Chile has successfully entered the Japanese market, mainly with salmon. Large quantities of Argentine, Chilean and Uruguayan hake pass through Spain, which will continue to be the reference point for exports of hake products into the EU market. The Argentine-EU fishing agreement will lead to more fish exports from Argentina to the EU in the coming years. The trend of producing more value-added products rather than selling raw material for the processing industries is likely to continue in the coming years. Imports will probably continue to evolve much as at present.

2.8 Technology and infrastructure

Fishing technology

On the Atlantic coast of Latin America, the main harvesting methods trawling for shrimp and demersal species with medium sized vessels in the region north of the Amazon river, and larger scale bottom and midwater trawling by large freezer stern trawlers south of the Rio de la Plata river. In addition, there is a seasonal purse seine fishery for small pelagics in southern Brazil, while an important purse seine fishery for tuna has developed in recent years, particularly in Venezuela. All along the coast, longlining is carried out in temperate waters mainly bottom set and in tropical and sub-tropical waters drifting long lines are also used targeting mainly large pelagics. Particularly along the Brazilian coast, there are important small-scale fisheries using a wide range of gear.

In the northern part of the Pacific coast, shrimp trawling is the most important fishing method; in the south, purse seining for small pelagics predominates, mostly to supply raw material to fishmeal and fish oil plants.

By contrast, fisheries in Caribbean small island states are mainly small-scale, artisanal fisheries, utilizing passive gear like hook and lines, gillnets, and pots and traps.

In the past, the Latin America region depended heavily on shipbuilding and fishing gear technology from outside the region. However, at present, shipyards in the region can build and fit fishing vessels out to high standards, and every type of fishing gear and gear handling machinery can be made by local manufacturers. Among other examples, these high standards and skills are reflected in the large and state-of-the-art equipped purse seiners being built by yards in both Peru and Chile.

Over the years, more harvesting technology has been transferred to the region, especially from northern Europe. An example is the recent introduction in Argentina of purpose built or converted vessels with automated longlining systems to target mostly Patagonian toothfish for onboard processing and freezing. Furthermore, in both Peru and Chile, older purse seiners are being replaced by new locally built vessels often with double the original carrying capacity. As these new vessels are also intended to harvest resources like jack mackerel in deeper waters more offshore, many of them are being fitted out or prepared for midwater trawling along the lines and in the past by Norwegian vessels. Several vessels are also being made longer to increase carrying capacity considerably. In recent years, shipyards, workshops and technical backstopping services in this sub-region have improved both facilities and skills to acknowledged international standards.

In the Caribbean, artisan vessels are traditionally built according to the specific fishing methods used: harvesting demersal resources and crustaceans close to the islands. As many of these inshore resources are heavily fished, fishing effort needs to be diverted to harvest small and large pelagic species in more offshore waters. However, this type of fishing requires a different type of craft fitted with appropriate gear handling equipment as well as facilities for preserving the catch. The further development and introduction of Fish Aggregating Devices adapted to local conditions could increase catch rates while reducing search time.

Data on the fleets of larger vessels (over 100 tons) can be derived from Lloyds Maritime Information Services. Relevant details are presented in Table 3, which shows that the fleet registered in Latin American Countries has been increasing at an annual rate of about 5% over the last decade. There are more large vessels in operation even without the somewhat exaggerated open registers of Panama and Honduras. This has to be seen against the context of the world fleet, which decreased from 24 000 vessels in 1993 to 23 000 vessels in 1994, clearly indicating that the reduction in overcapacity in Europe, North America, and to a lesser extent in Mexico and Brazil, has not yet affected other Latin American countries. This might be reflected in the increased landings for the area in 1994.

Fish processing

The region is well equipped with modern processing plants and in principle has no particular difficulty in manufacturing products to international standards, and in ensuring the quality of safe and wholesome products. Examples of the use of modern processing technology include the export of cultured fresh salmon to distant markets and the production of special quality fish meals; these examples demonstrate that the industry has no particular problems in keeping abreast of technological developments, both in the application of modern processes and quality control systems.

On the other hand, domestic fish marketing systems have not yet developed to modern standards. As fish marketing theoretically depends on substantial public investment in infrastructures such as wholesale and retail markets, significant improvements are necessary in most countries to achieve low unit cost (high turnover or throughput) distribution of acceptable fishery products to reach the large consumer markets. In inland areas in particular, artisanal fisheries are frequently hampered by lack of market access. In several countries, the marketing infrastructure has been modernized with financial assistance from Japan.

2.9 Investments in the fishery sector

Despite the lack of specific information on investment in fisheries and the difficulty in evaluating such information, some fisheries have clearly attracted large amounts of capital investment to replace or expand fishing and processing capacity. Other fisheries are being restructured to re-establish profitability as economic incentives are phased out. Consequently, recent investments have been often accompanied by measures that include downsizing and modernizing of fishing fleet. The following investment trends have prevailed in the region over the last ten years:

Both domestic and international investment in the fisheries sector will continue to be encouraged by the liberalization of regional economies and the continued increase in world demand for fish. As a minimum, fisheries management will have to become strict in establishing fishing effort limits and monitoring, controlling and surveying fishing activities to ensure fishery sustainability.

3. POLICY AND INSTITUTIONAL FRAMEWORK

3.1 Macro-economic and fisheries sector policies

With emphasis varying according to local conditions, most countries in the Latin American and Caribbean region have followed similar macro-economic policies in recent years. Stabilization programmes have been pursued to regulate inflation by monitoring the fiscal deficit and monetary supply, including the removal of subsidies, usually throughout the entire economy. Structural reform programmes have also been implemented, aimed at: (i) liberalizing the national economy, reducing trade barriers and phasing out administrative and regulatory obstacles to foreign trade; (ii) reforming the financial system; (iii) making the labour market more flexible; (iv) re-negotiating foreign debt and associated payments; and, (v) reducing the state's administrative and technical structure and privatizing state-owned or regulated economic ventures and services to increase efficiency and reduce the public deficit.

These policies have not had a uniform impact on fisheries in the region, as they were implemented in the context of high, sustained international demand for fish and fish products.

The following areas were affected substantially by macro-economic policies:

Privatization:

Privatization has not been a key issue for fisheries of the region since production is private in most countries. México and Perú, two countries wich historically have had considerable state intervention, have privatized their public assets. Direct state intervention in fisheries in Latin America and the Caribbean has been always limited to a few countries, originally to consolidate the development process. Today, the state does not directly intervene in the economic activities of the fisheries sector in the region.

Opening of the economy:

The elimination or reduction of import duties and the facilitation of foreign trade through the phasing out of other barriers to trade, have reduced the costs of imports for the fishing fleet and for the processing sector, making the sector more competitive on international markets.

Financial markets:

The level of interest rates is a key aspect of current monetary policies. High interest rates do not affect all the subsectors of the fisheries sector equally. Small producers and small-scale fishermen have not experienced much change vis-a vis their previous situation, when they rarely had access to credit due to their particular socio-economic status. The financial situation of fishing and processing companies is better. Their possibilities to profit from low interest rates depends on the volume of their debts and the strength of their links with international market operators.

Economic incentives:

In most countries of the region, all kinds of subsidies and economic incentives for fisheries were phased out several years ago.

Foreign investment:

Current policies have encouraged investment in the fisheries sector, particularly in areas with solid export markets. Often, investment has been used to build capacity.

International demand for fish and fish products together with current macro-economic policies are making the fisheries sector increasingly oriented to international markets. In many countries, small-scale fisheries, which are usually the natural supplier to domestic markets, a now fishing for export markets. With international demand and prices increasing, not much investment will be attracted to produce for domestic markets as disposable incomes are not expected to grow rapidly unless deliberate initiatives to enhance domestic fish markets are taken.,(e.g., by promoting low utilized species, etc.).

3.2 Current national policies for fisheries conservation and management

The widespread introduction in the mid-seventies of exclusive economic zones (EEZs) and the adoption in 1982, after long deliberations, of the United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea, provided a new framework for the better management of marine resources. Such extended national jurisdiction was a necessary but inadequate step toward the efficient management and sustainable development of fisheries. Many coastal States in the region continued to face serious challenges as, lacking experience and financial and physical resources, they sought to extract greater benefits from the fisheries within their EEZs. In recent years, world fisheries have become a dynamic contributor to food supplies and many coastal states have moved to take advantage of these new opportunities by investing in modern fishing fleets and processing factories to meet growing international demand for fish and fishery products. Moreover, the contribution of fisheries to employment, foreign currency earnings and food supply translated into greater pressure on fishery resources.

By the late 1980s, it became clear that fisheries resources could no longer sustain such rapid and often uncontrolled exploitation and development, and that new approaches to fisheries management were urgently needed, embracing conservation and environmental considerations. The situation was made worse by the realization that unregulated fisheries on the high seas, in some cases involving straddling and highly migratory fish species, which occur within and outside EEZs, were becoming a matter of growing concern. At its Nineteenth Session in March 1991, the Committee on Fisheries (COFI) called for the development of new concepts which would lead to responsible, sustained fisheries.

Countries in the region are evaluating and reformulating fisheries policy in terms of fisheries conservation, management and development in the light of the situation of the fishery sector, taking into account developments in international policy, as well as legal, technical and environmental aspects. Most regional countries participated fully in the following international agreements and conventions: the ratification of UNCLOS; the adoption of the Code of Conduct for Responsible Fisheries; Agenda 21 of UNCED; the Agreement for the Implementation of the Provisions of the United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea of 10 December 1982, relating to the Conservation and Management of Straddling Fish Stocks and Highly Migratory Fish Stocks; and the Agreement to Promote Compliance with International Conservation and Management Measures by Fishing Vessels on the High Seas.

3.3 Regional fishery organizations and arrangements

The regional institutional framework is formed by several fishery regional bodies each of which has a membership, areas of competence, mandate and geographical jurisdiction. Two of them are FAO bodies (WECAFC and CARPAS) and the other are intergovernmental non-FAO bodies (Oldepesca, OECS, CARICOM, IICAT, Comision Mixta Argentina -Uruguay (CMTFM), Comisión Permanente par el Pacífico Sur (CPPS). The purpose, competence and membership of these bodies are briefly reviewed.

Western Central Atlantic Fishery Commission (WECAFC)

The Western Central Atlantic Commission for Fisheries Management and Development (WECAFC) was established in 1973 by Resolution of the FAO Council (under Article 4.1 of the FAO Constitution), taking into account the challenges to be faced by fishing nations operating in the area. Summarily, the main functions are to facilitate the coordination of research, to encourage education and training, to assist member governments in establishing rational policies and to promote the rational management of resources that concern two or more countries. The Commission covers all marine waters of the Western Central Atlantic Ocean (FAO Statistical areas 31 and part of 41).

The Commission has held eight sessions, the last of them in November 1995 in Caracas, Venezuela. The Commission is supported by two subsidiary bodies: the Working Party of Fishery Resources (five sessions, the last in 1989), and the more recently established Working Party on Fishery Economics and Planning (one session, 1989).

During its Eight Session, the Commission discussed its future role in regional fisheries cooperation, taking into account the fisheries situation and the latest international developments in fishery policy, management and development. In its next session, the Commission has agreed to consider measures to strengthen the institutional framework for fisheries cooperation in management.

Regional Fisheries Advisory Commission for the Southwest Atlantic (CARPAS)

CARPAS, which was established by a FAO Resolution in 1961, covers the Southwest Atlantic and inland waters of member states (Part of FAO Statistical Area 41). Membership is restricted to FAO Member Nations in the American continent which have coastlines on the Western Atlantic Ocean south of the Equator (members are Argentina, Brazil and Uruguay). Its terms of reference are to promote fuller use of marine resources in the area in accordance with sound economic and scientific principles; to coordinate studies, research and techniques; and to determine common requirements. CARPAS has not been active since 1974.

Comisión de Pesca Continental para America Latina y el Caribe (COPESCAL)

The Commission for Inland Fisheries was established by the FAO Council at its Seventieth

Session (1976, Resolution 4/70).

The terms of reference of the Commission are to promote, coordinate and assist national and regional fishery and limnological surveys and programmes of research and development leading to the rational utilization of inland fishery resources; to assist members in establishing the scientific basis for regulatory and other management measures; to assist in the development of aquaculture, recreational fishing, and the capture, marketing and utilization of fish; to encourage members to formulate national and regional programmes to achieve the objectives.

There are currently 21 members from Latin America and the Caribbean.

The Commission has held seven Sessions. It is made up of three working parties which hold their meetings at approximately two-yearly intervals: the Working Party on Fisheries Resources, the Working Party on Fisheries Technology, and the Working Party on Aquaculture.

Organization of Eastern Caribbean States (OECS)

The establishment of the Organization of Eastern Caribbean States (OECS) on 18 June 1981 marked the latest stage in cooperation among the various small island states of the Eastern Caribbean. The immediate forerunners to the OECS were the West Indies Associated States (1968) and the Eastern Caribbean Common Market (1968). The membership comprises six sovereign states, Antigua and Barbuda, Dominica, Grenada, Saint Lucia, St. Kitts and Nevis, St. Vincent and the Grenadines, and two dependent territories, the British Virgin Islands and Montserrat of the United Kingdom. Anguilla, also a dependent territory of the United Kingdom, is an Associate Member.

As set out its treaty, the major purposes of the Organization are to promote cooperation among Member States at regional and international levels; promote economic integration, unity and solidarity among Member States; defend the sovereignty, territorial integrity and independence of members; and to harmonize as far as possible the foreign policies of OECS countries.

The Natural Resources Resource Management Unit (NRMU) of the OECS is responsible for natural resources (and fisheries) management. The mission statement of the NRMU is "to foster effective collaboration among member states in the optimization and management of natural resources for sustainable development in the OECS." The main objectives for fisheries are to promote, coordinate and facilitate regional fisheries management and development, capacity building and institutional strengthening; foster cooperation with national, regional and international institutions and agencies involved in fisheries management and development; and facilitate joint OECS participation and representation in regional and international fora.

The primary objective of the OECS Fisheries Management and Development Programme is to establish, in collaboration with members, a regime for the sustainable exploitation, conservation and management of fisheries resources. Activities of the 1996-1997 Fisheries Work Programme fall in the following broad categories: data management and analysis; human resource development and training; OECS fisheries monitoring, control and surveillance; maritime boundary delimitation; OECS Common Fisheries Zone; Marine Communication/Search and Rescue; and Fisheries Stock Assessment and Management.

Caribbean Community and Common Market (CARICOM)

The Caribbean Community and Common Market (CARICOM) was established by the Treaty of Chaguaramas on 4 July 1973 with the principal purpose of enhancing, through co-operation, the economic, social and cultural development of the peoples of the Caribbean Commonwealth. The desire for closer links among Commonwealth Caribbean states had been expressed in precursor movements such as the West Indian Federation, a political union which lasted from 1958 to 1962, and the Caribbean Free Trade Association (CARIFTA), which was established in 1968 to focus on economic development and later became the Common Market.

The membership of CARICOM comprises Antigua and Barbuda, Bahamas, Barbados, Belize, Dominica, Grenada, Guyana, Jamaica, Montserrat, Saint Lucia, St. Kitts and Nevis, St. Vincent and the Grenadines, Suriname, and Trinidad and Tobago. The British Virgin Islands and the Turks and Caicos are Associate Members. A number of other states from Latin America and the Caribbean, such as Anguilla, Aruba, Bermuda, Cayman Island, Colombia, Dominican Republic, Haiti, Mexico, the Dutch Antilles, Puerto Rico, and Venezuela, enjoy observer status in various institutions of the Community and CARICOM Ministerial bodies.

In January 1991, a Memorandum of Agreement was signed between CARICOM and the Canadian Government, setting out the goals and objectives of the CARICOM Fisheries Resource Assessment and Management Program (CFRAMP), which had the primary goal to "to promote the management and conservation of the fisheries resources of the CARICOM countries and to permit the exploitation of these on the basis of sustainable yield."

Latin American Organization for Fisheries Development (OLDEPESCA)

The most recent regional organization with direct involvement in fisheries matters is OLDEPESCA, which was established on 29 October 1982 by SELA (the Economic System for Latin America). The following states signed the agreement establishing OLDEPESCA: Bolivia, Costa Rica, Ecuador, El Salvador, Guatemala, Guyana, Haiti, Honduras, Mexico, Nicaragua, Panama and Peru. Under the agreement, OLDEPESA is to base its activity on the principles of equality, sovereignty, independence, solidarity, non-intervention in internal affairs, and respect for the different political, economic and social systems, in accordance with the Declaration of Principles of International Law concerning friendship and cooperation between States in conformity with the Charter of the United Nations as unanimously approved by the General Assembly at its 25th Session, and with respect for the "sovereignty" (soberanía) of states over their fishery resources.

In addition to the above countries, the current membership also includes Venezuela and Colombia, albeit with different status.

The organization aims at:

The areas of action for OLDEPESCA cooperation are research into fishery resources, exploitation of fishery resources, industrialisation, support infrastructures, aquaculture, technological development, commercialisation, training, and international cooperation

Permanent South Pacific Commission (CPPS)

The Permanent Commission for the South Pacific (CPPS, Comisión Permanente del Pacífico Sur) was established by the Santiago Declaration on 18 August 1982 to coordinate sub-regional initiatives to preserve marine natural resources within the 200 mile limit off the coast of member states. Original members were Chile, Ecuador and Perú, while Colombia joined in August 1987. The main objectives are to coordinate maritime policies at regional level; preserve and utilize the marine resources in their area of influence; preserve the marine environment; promote scientific marine research and transfer of technology; and promote trade and commercial cooperation. The CPPS has a Secretariat with 4 international senior staff, whose main fields of expertise include international affairs, scientific research, and legal matters. The CPPS also draws on the experience of national experts from member states, as required.

At present, the CPPS HQs are in Lima, Peru, but the rotation system means that the CPPS Hqs moves from one member country to another every four years. Besides its leading role as the major regional body in the discussion and negotiation of the Law of the Sea, the CPPS has actively participated in drafting, negotiating and adopting several regional and international conventions and agreements on the exploitation and conservation of marine resources, the prevention of pollution, and preservation of the marine environment. The CPPS also organizes regional meetings, seminars, symposia and working groups.

3.4 National fishery administrations in Latin America and the Caribbean

Fishery administrations in Latin America are composed of a wide variety of administrative units. The policy of structural adjustment initiated in the regionmeans these units have been drastically modified in recent years, affecting functions, services, budget allocation, and professional staff.

Most fishery administrative units (see Appendix 2) are fishery divisions (9 cases) and fishery services/departments (9 cases). Two countries (Cuba and Peru) have Ministries of Fisheries. In Chile, Ecuador and Mexico, the fishery administrations are Under-Ministries, while in most countries of the Lesser Antilles, the fishery administrative units are small fishery offices.

Until recently, the Ministries of Fisheries used to perform mainstream functions in the fishery sector, including fisheries policy, planning and sector analisis, resource management, allocation of fishery resources, international cooperation, coordination of policy and management with other governmental structures, and fishery enforcement, monitoring and surveillance. They also provided essential services for fishery and aquaculture management and development, such as fishery statistics, research, training, legal advice and fishery credit. The Ministries of Fisheries were also responsible for the managing of important national fish enterprises.

National fishery institutes usually carry out more limited functions than the Ministries of Fisheries, but hold good hierarchical positions and are quite autonomous.

Fishery divisions have limited administrative responsibilities in the fishery sector. They usually participate in monitoring fishery regulations and offer some basic fishery services, such as data collection, evaluation of fishery and aquaculture development projects, sectoral analysis, and support to small-scale fisheries development. As a rule, fishery divisions have been poorly funded.

The fishery services/departments are small units located within an agricultural or broader natural resources division. Due to their limited technical and budgetary capacity, their mandate is restricted mainly to monitoring certain fishery regulations, providing some support to the development of small-scale fisheries and rural aquaculture, and part-time fishery data collection.

The fishery offices are administrative units staffed by three to five fishery officers, who are mainly responsible for statistical data sampling, evaluation of fishery and aquaculture development projects, and supporting the development of small-scale fisheries.

The impact of macro-economic policies on fishery administrations

Macro-economic policies to reduce public expenditure and encourage privatization have had an impact on fisheries administration. The most recent important structural change in the fishery sector in the region has been privatization, which started in the late 1980s and is being completed in most countries. Measure includes the privatization of fishing companies, and the privatization or decentralization of research, information, training and other technical services. The privatization programmes have been implemented alongside reductions in the functions of the fishery administrative units and drastic cuts in budgets and professional staff.

As a result of restructuring, fishery administrations have been reduced to a minimum, facing difficulties to carry out their duties related to fishery/aquaculture management and development. Paradoxically, these reductions often come at the same time as governments are facing growing pressure to ensure the sustainable use of fishery resources, responsible fisheries, protection of the aquatic environment, and other measures endorsed by the international community.

Main trends fishery institutions development

Two trends can be observed regarding the position of fishery administrations within the public sector. Some governments have attempted to solve the problem caused by the reduction of funds and staff through upgrading their fishery administration: Colombia and Costa Rica have established National Institutes for Fisheries and Aquaculture, and the Lesser Antilles countries have strengthened their fishery services. Other governments have chosen a simple cost reduction, including the downgrading of fishery administrations (Brazil, Nicaragua, Mexico and Venezuela). The remaining countries have restructured their fishery units, while maintaining their same position within public administration.

Another trend in recent years has been the diminished capacity of fishery administrations to carry out policy, planning, resources management and other basic normative functions.

The capacity to provide essential technical services has also been reduced. In most countries, fishery research institutions have drastically reduced their programmes. At present, the research needs of the fishery sector are incresingly taken care of by academic institutions, which, in turn, depend largely on external assistance. Furthermore, fishery administrations are less able now than in the past to collect and process statistical data. For example (The Brazilian fishery statistical service, which was disbanded in 1990, has still not been replaced.)

In many countries, public quality control services for fishery products, including quality certification, have been transferred to private laboratories, with a considerable increase in costs.

Finally, the restructuring of fishery administrations in many countires of the region has meant that government programmes to support small-scale fisheries have been sharply scaled down or stopped. The same is true for rural aquaculture programmes.

Appendix

Most structural changes in fishery administrative institutions in recent years in Latin America and the Caribbean

Table 4 shows the administrative hierarchy of fisheries administrations in the region. It should be noted that at the top there is always a Ministry, often the Ministry of Agriculture, or in some countries, the Ministry of Commerce and Industry, Environment, etc.

3.5 Fisheries research and training

Fisheries is a complex activity involving multisectoral and multidisciplinary activities. Fisheries research and training accurately reflect this complexity.

In Latin America, fisheries research mainly consist of marine biological research, including stock assessment, carried out by national institutions and, in several countries, also by universities. These bodies often do not have enough staff and facilities for fishing technology research and development, e.g., to improve gear selectivity and to assist the industry in transferring and adapting innovations applied in fisheries in the northern hemisphere. In addition, fishing technologists in Latin America have only limited contact with regional colleagues, hampering the exchange of ideas and results with the risk that efforts could be duplicated.

Many Caribbean island states do not have their own fisheries research and development facilities. However, the region is served by the Caribbean Training and Development Institute, located in Trinidad and Tobago, which should be strengthened.

The main fishing nations in the region have operational fisheries research institutes, and most were created with FAO assistance (mostly through FAO/UNDP projects) in the 1960s or in the early 1970s. This is the case for the Instituto Nacional de la Pesca (INP) in Mexico, the Instituto Nacional de Pesca (INP) in Ecuador, the Instituto del Mar del Perú (IMARPE) in Peru, the Instituto de Fomento Pesquero (IFOP) in Chile, the Instituto Nacional de Investigación y Desarrollo Pesquero (INIDEP) in Argentina, and the Instituto Nacional de Pesca (INAPE) in Uruguay. National fisheries research units were also set up with FAO assistance in other countries, such as Brazil, Venezuela and Colombia, but over the years these research structures have been dismantled, modified or merged into other institutional settings. While most of the existing research institutions have a strong focus on marine biological research, including stock assessment, most of them also play a leading role as advisory bodies to their relevant fisheries authorities, advising governments on fishery regulations, licences, development programmes, etc. Some institutes may also be responsible for managing the main national fisheries and also take up fisheries surveillance and enforcement roles, e.g., INAPE in Uruguay. This, however, is the exception. In most countries, separate institutions carry out the roles of fisheries research, fisheries administration and management, monitoring, surveillance and enforcement.

Economic science is not yet being applied in regional fisheries. Although fisheries is essentially an economic activity, fishery economics has not been formally integrated in research, technical advice to government, and training. Formal university education is limited as are post-graduate and on-the-job training. Governmental commitment to pursue sustainable fisheries development through responsible fisheries will increase the need for more scientific research and advice, especially on socio- economic aspects of fisheries.

3.6 Economic and technical cooperation in fisheries

In recent years, economic and technical cooperation in fisheries has changed somewhat. As shown in Table 5, between 1989 and 1994, the amount of technical and financial assistance to regional fisheries fluctuated from about US$ 40 million to 60 million, with a lower peak in 1991. More than 50% of assistance in 1994 was bilateral.

Most funding was channelled to research, institutional support, fishery inputs, and processing and marketing (Table 6).

SECTION B ISSUES

1. MANAGEMENT OF EXCESS FISHING CAPACITY

Maintaining fishing capacity at suitable levels is one of the major management challenges in developed fisheries everywhere around the world. Besides creating economic waste and reducing net revenues, excess fishing capacity is translated into pressure to overexploit fisheries resources, and is particularly dangerous when management measures to check this capacity are lacking.

While excess fishing capacity is almost unavoidable in any profitable fisheries under an unrestricted, open access regime, most fishing nations in the region have legal provisions to regulate and limit access to their main fisheries. In order to do this, most nations have some kind of licensing schemes for most major fisheries that regulate or limit the total number of vessels, fishermen, gear, accumulated engine power, or other unit of fishing capacity that could enter most major fisheries. As a result, most fisheries recognized to be at, or near, the state of full exploitation are theoretically under a closed access regime, meaning that no new unit of fishing capacity can enter the fishery if not to replace one leaving it.

Some countries also use individual quota (IQ) systems to allocate access to resources, and thus keep fishing capacity under control. A few countries are also considering or have plans to apply the individual transferable quota (ITQ) systems to the same end. Although this relatively novel approach has only applied so far in a few specific cases, mostly in developed countries, ITQs are theoretically an effective way of regulating excess fishing capacity, and of achieving other management objectives. However, it is probably still too early to judge their effectiveness and possibilities of success, particularly in developing countries and in highly variable fisheries and fish resources, which is the case for several of those in the region.

National legislation aimed at regulating fishing capacity has not always proven to be very successful in the region. While the actual legislation may be adequate, non-existent or too permissive surveillance and enforcement practices might be a major reason for excess fishing capacity developing beyond adequate limits in some highly profitable fisheries. A common way of bypassing fishery regulations is to request a licence for a new vessel to fish for underexploited fish stocks, and then ask for the licence to be extended or modified (some times through social or political pressure) to fish for more traditional and valuable species. This seems to have been the case for several important fisheries in the region, such as the Peruvian anchoveta-sardine fish meal fisheries, some hake fisheries, and most shrimp fisheries.

Although closed to new fishers, total fishing capacity allocated to the anchoveta-sardine fish meal fisheries off Peru increased during the late 1970s and the 1980s. The reason was the incorporation of vessels originally granted permission to fish for either human consumption or to target other underexploited pelagic stocks in the same area. In several hake fisheries, total fishing capacity also increased through the addition of fishing vessels originally granted permission to fish for other less valuable and, so far, underexploited demersal stocks. In more tropical areas, coastal shrimp fisheries officially declared closed to new comers have experienced a considerable increase in fishing capacity from new vessels that were originally granted licences or permission to fish for deep-water shrimps or for coastal demersals.

To counter balance these negative experiences, there are several positive examples of fishing capacity being kept under control, and successful measures to rebuild depleted stocks and/or maintain the healthy state of existing stocks: for instance, the sardinella fisheries off Venezuela, considered to be lightly to moderately exploited; snapper and other hook and line fisheries off Venezuela and Trinidad and Tobago, considered to be moderately exploited; and more recently, the Peruvian anchoveta fishery, which after being depleted, has recovered and is now fully exploited following more rigorous enforcement of fishing capacity regulations and favourable environmental conditions.

2. BY-CATCH ISSUES IN SOUTH AND CENTRAL AMERICA

The biological and economic impacts of by-catch, much of which is frequently discarded, have recently been recognised as one of the major problems confronting sustainable utilization of living marine resources. An FAO-sponsored study (Alverson et al. 1994) estimated that between 18 and 40 million mt of fish taken as by-catch were discarded annually. Within the Latin American and Caribbean region, discards only account for a small percentage of total catch, approximately 5%. This relatively low figure is mainly due to the very high landings by Peru and Chile of fish meal species, for which there are little or no discards. These two countries land 18.6 million mt of sardines, anchoveta and jacks mainly for their fish meal industries, leaving the remaining catch of the area at less than 4.8 million mt. Nevertheless, the waste from these fisheries have to be discussed.

There are three particular regional problems related to by-catch and discards which require, and are receiving, urgent attention: by-catches of groundfish and turtles during shrimp fishing, and by-catches of dolphins during tuna fishing operations.

Shrimp fishing is notorious for the high level of by-catch associated with it and Alverson et al (1994) found that 14 of the 20 highest discard ratios by weight occurred in shrimp trawl fisheries. Within the South and Central American region, important shrimp fisheries exist in the Gulf of Mexico and on the Guyanas-Brazil continental shelf. In the United States of America, the southeastern shrimp fishery is one of the country's most valuable and important, while for example, Venezuela, Suriname and Trinidad and Tobago have important shrimp fisheries, with much of the catch destined for export. These fisheries all take by-catches of important groundfish species such as croaker Micropogonias spp., snapper Lutjanus spp., and dog trout Macrodon ancylodon. As much of the by-catch is made up of juveniles, these by-catches have a major impact on the most affected species, reducing their abundance and the directed catches which they can sustain.

Historical data from Brazil and Mexico provide good examples of attempts to reduce discards from shrimp fisheries in particular. The tropical shrimp trawl fishery in Brazil is divided into 3 classes: double rig trawlers fishing pink shrimp (257 vessels of 20m); double rig trawlers catching sea bob and white shrimp (556 vessels of 11 to 16m); and a fleet of 4 300 artisanal vessels fishing on all shallow water species. These operations include examples where by-catch is discarded, partially discarded, and all retained for consumption.

In 1986, an estimated 38% of the 644 000 tonnes of fish catch from these fisheries was discarded (i.e. 244 000 mt); in the shrimp fishery, 281 000 mt were discarded from a by-catch of 414 000 mt, for a shrimp catch of 55 000 mt. Applying knowledge from Europe and North America, multiple trawls with sharper tapers were introduced, resulting in greatly improved selectivity and efficiency. It was reported that by-catch decreased by 18% while shrimp catches increased by 5%. However, traditional trawls are still used in inshore fisheries, where by-catch is used for human consumption.

As well as finfish, substantial by-catches of turtles are associated with shrimp trawling operations. Five species of turtle live off the northern coast of South America: Atlantic loggerhead (Caretta caretta), Atlantic green (Chelonia mydas mydas), Atlantic hawksbill (Eretmochelys imbricata), Pacific ridley (Lepidochelys olivacea), and Atlantic leatherback (Dermochelys coriacea). Kemp's ridleys, leatherbacks and hawksbills are listed as endangered throughout their ranges while the other two species are listed as threatened or endangered throughout their ranges. An investigation by the National Research Council of the United States of America (NRC, 1990) found that turtle populations in the USA appeared to be declining and that by-catch in shrimp trawls was the major human-induced cause of mortality.

Devices to reduce or eliminate by-catches of finfish (by-catch reduction devices : BRDs) and turtles (turtle excluder devices : TEDs) have been developed, and improved designs continue to be developed. The NRC (1990) reported that it was possible to reduce catches of turtles by 97% using such devices. With some of these devices, there have been no demonstrated reductions in shrimp catch. There has been a strong drive to encourage or enforce shrimp fishers to install such devices, particularly TEDs. For example, since 1988 shrimp vessels in the USA are obliged to use TEDs at certain times of the year, but not without considerable controversy and protests from some shrimp fishers. In 1989, shrimp imports to the USA were embargoed from countries which did not adopt similar conservation measures. Other countries have followed suit, and in 1993, Mexico and Venezuela enforced the use of TEDs.

Four types of hard TEDs are commonly used by the National Marine Fisheries (NMFS): the Super Shooter, Antony and Sanders Grill. In addition, there are soft TEDs with netting panels rather than fixed devices, which are more acceptable to fishermen. However, as some of the devices have been patented, developing countries might soon find it too expensive to use them. The use of the "fish eye", together with various "leader" panels for the exclusion of unwanted catches, seems to be developing.

Catches of dolphin species such as the spinner dolphin Stenella longirostris and the spotted dolphin S. attenuata in the eastern tropical Pacific tuna fishery have a been cause for concern for some time. By-catches of the most commonly taken dolphin species are generally considered to have caused a decline in these populations, but by the early-1970s, catches of dolphin began to decline and populations of affected dolphin species seem to have stabilized (Alverson et al. 1994). The changes are reportedly due to deliberate efforts to reduce by-catch, including training of skippers to undertake "backdown procedures", helping dolphins from the nets, and making appropriate gear modifications.

There are ongoing efforts to develop responsible approaches to harvesting marine resources without damaging other species or the ecosystem. At the time of writing, the United States was considering implementing new, more stringent legislation to control shrimp trawling. Amongst the provisions of this legislation are the enforcement of top-opening, hard turtle-excluder devices and the establishment of Shrimp Fishery Sea Turtle Conservation Areas. The US Congress is also investigating possible options for managing dolphin catches in tuna fisheries, including acknowledgment of the significant reduction in dolphin mortalities achieved by the International Dolphin Conservation Programme (IDCP), and allowing limited incidental catching of marine mammals in the eastern tropical Pacific yellowfin tuna fishery in accordance with the IDCP.

At the same time, market forces are also being used to support and promote government action. The tuna dolphin legislation includes provision to lift the ban on tuna imports to the USA from nations that are members of the IATTC and are participating in the IDCP, while recommending a policy to discourage tuna imports from fisheries not participating in the IDCP. In the same vein, a number of environmental groups, including the Earth Island Institute and the American Society for the Prevention of Cruelty to Animals, have launched a campaign to certify the products of shrimp fishing operations which comply with certain specifications, including the use of TEDs, as turtle safe.

The problems of by-catch and its impact on other stocks clearly require urgent attention. For the hundreds of thousands of people whose livelihood depends on fisheries, specific gear and fishing practices are urgently required so that resources can be utilized sustainably and co-occurring stocks are not depleted. Otherwise, it will not be possible to obtain optimal benefits from these resources while preserving all options for future generations.

3. ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACTS ON MARINE FISHERIES WITH PARTICULAR REFERENCE TO THE "EL NIÑO" PHENOMENON

It is well recognized that large year-to-year fluctuations in fish abundance and total production are often due to changes in environmental conditions. The region, particularly the western coast of the Americas, seem to be particularly susceptible to the impacts of environmental changes. Dramatic fluctuations in marine fish populations seem to have occurred on decadal scales in the Pacific basin, with changes that have severely affected the overall abundance and total production of small pelagics, as well as other fish stocks in the Eastern Central Pacific and South East Pacific.

Particularly noticeable are the impacts of "El Niño" phenomenon, especially the 1972-73 one that contributed to the dramatic collapse of the Peruvian anchoveta fishery, and the 1982-83 El Niño, which had a very negative impact on abundance and actual fish production in the whole Pacific area. Although the impacts on the more abundant small pelagics overshadow the potential impacts on other fish stocks, the "El Niños" do affect other coastal species as well as large pelagics and highly migratory species.

Changes in the overall distribution and local abundance of squids, tunas, coastal shrimps, hakes and a relatively wide variety of species, which are or could be related to changes in the "El Niño" Southern Oscillations (ENSO), have been reported on both the Pacific and Atlantic sides of the Americas.

In the Atlantic, year-to-year fluctuations in the advance of Antarctic waters into the South West Atlantic (Area 41) seem to have a strong impact on the abundance and productivity of some key stocks, particularly animals with short lifespans such as squids. Past year-to-year fluctuations and current low of abundance of Brazilian sardinella could also be partially attributed to the influence of long-term decadal changes in environmental conditions.

In the Eastern Central Atlantic, in the Caribbean area, tropical climatic events also seem to have an impact on the abundance and production of important fish stocks. For instance, it is reported that hurricane Gilbert, which hit the area in 1988, caused high mortality among lobster juveniles.

Efforts are therefore required to improve forecasting capabilities for these large annual environmental changes in order to reduce the negative impact on fisheries, and eventually to be able to benefit from some of the positive impacts these changes can entail. The strong and highly unpredictable impact of environmental changes represents an additional source of variability and uncertainty in all phases of the planning and management of regional fisheries. Any effort to reduce such variability and uncertainty will certainly benefit the individual fisheries and economy of the countries and region concerned.

4. DEVELOPMENT OF SMALL-SCALE FISHERIES IN LATIN AMERICA AND THE CARIBBEAN

Fisheries in the Latin American and Caribbean countries comprise two sectors: small-scale and industrial fisheries. Small-scale fisheries exist throughout the region and are the only fisheries in some countries. In many coastal areas, small-scale fisheries constitute the main source of employment and subsistence. This sector is also the main source of fish and fish products for domestic markets in most countries. Given the increase in demand for high-value fishery products for tourist and export markets, small-scale fishermen often play an important role in earning foreign exchange.

Though economically and nutritionally important, small-scale fisheries are often socially neglected. Small-scale fishermen have approximately the same income levels as other primary-sector workers, but they and their families have limited access to health, education, housing, credit and other basic needs, mainly because of the distance of their communities from welfare facilities and social infrastructures. This difficult social situation is even more precarious for many coastal dwellers without means of subsistence, who turn to small-scale fisheries as the last resort for food and survival.

One of the main problems affecting small-scale fisheries is the general overexploitation of fishery resources in coastal areas and the lack of mechanisms to manage and regulate access to these resources. Proposals and government efforts to solve this problem have often failed, and resources remain depleted. A possible solution under consideration is to integrate fisheries into coastal area management, with the effective participation of fishermen and other resource users.

Another major problem is the lack of physical infrastructure. Improved facilities for landing and for repairing and maintaining fishing craft and gear, and appropriate installations for fish handling, processing and marketing, would undoubtedly boost production in remote areas where there is still room for expansion. This problem is made worse by the fact that small-scale fishers and their communities do not have access to credit to make the necessary investments in such infrastructure.

The low organizational level of small-scale fishermen is another serious problem. Fishermen's cooperatives and other productive organizations appear to have been successful only in Belize and Cuba. The majority of small-scale fishermen remain dispersed or badly organized, despite widespread acknowledgment of the economic and social benefits of associations.

Recent trends

Small-scale fishermen have participated more actively in the export of fishery products during recent years. Although small-scale fishers in the region have caught lobster and shrimp for many years, their share in export markets has recently been increased due to a higher share of small-scale fisheries in shrimp production; and a significant increase in the exports of shellfish (clams, abalone, and crabs), algae and finfish (grouper, snapper, swordfish and hake) caught by small-scale fishermen for the European, USA, Japanese and other Asiatic markets.

Small-scale fishermen also participate more actively in activities linked to the tourist industry. Although small-scale fishermen have supplied fishery products to restaurants catering for tourists for many years, the boom in regional tourism has generated more employment opportunities for small-scale fishermen. They still supply fish for local tourist restaurants and are also take part in other tourist programmes by using their boats to transport tourists. Furthermore, there are work opportunities in marine installations and other activities linked to the tourist industry.

The reallocation of small-scale fishermen into aquaculture activities is also a new trend. Regional aquacultural expansion (culture of shrimp, salmon, tilapia, etc.) has also provided new employment opportunities. Besides positive socio-economic effects, this reallocation of labour could be instrumental in alleviating already excessive pressure on coastal fishery resources. In countries like Ecuador, thousands of small-scale fishermen are employed in the capture of wild larvae for the shrimp culture industry.

Recent cuts in budgets and technical staff in fishery administrations have severely affected administrative support to small-scale fisheries development, particularly by reducing credit programmes, infrastructure development, assistance in organizational matters, and other basic services.

Further constraints to small-scale fisheries development include current rates of inflation in some regional countries, higher fuel prices, and the phasing out of subsidies to the fishery sector.

5. RURAL AQUACULTURE

Certain rough estimates attribute 70% of total world aquaculture production to small-scale rural aquaculture. This ratio is totally different in the Latin America and Caribbean region, where rural aquaculture accounts for only about 23% of total aquaculture production. The broad term of "rural aquaculture" is used here as opposed to high investment-high yield "industrial" aquaculture.

Less than 1% of the 472 000 mt of total aquaculture production in 1994 can be considered "subsistence" aquaculture. The remaining 22% is a sort of semi-commercial aquaculture that is rarely integrated with other agriculture activities. Only a very small part of trout culture (Oncorhyncus mykiss) can be truly considered in this category. Therefore, semi-commercial rural aquaculture mainly consists of artisanal mariculture and freshwater culture. The former accounts for 67% (104 000 mt) of this type of aquaculture: mainly algae culture in Chile (Gracilaria spp.) (66 000 mt), and oyster culture (Crassostrea spp.) in Mexico of 38 000 mt. Freshwater culture of 48 000 mt accounts for 29%: tilapias 35 000 mt, carps 8.300 mt, and Colossoma spp. 4 500 mt.

Artisanal mariculture, which depends closely on coastal management and therefore on institutional performance and managerial capacities, is very often a political issue with strong social implications.

Freshwater and inland aquaculture hold considerable potential for developing two of the three main types of rural aquaculture: subsistence and semi-commercial. Subsistence aquaculture is a social-oriented activity that require subsidies to be sustainable. To date, the results of significant efforts to develop this type of aquaculture have been disappointing. Nonetheless, it can contribute significantly to food security in certain isolated areas of the region. New approaches and strategies must be urgently developed.

Although semi-commercial aquaculture cannot be strictly considered a socially oriented, subsidized activity, it still depends to a large extent on government institutions and development agencies. The growth of both subsistence and semi-commercial aquaculture has been hampered by of social, economic and institutional problems. Current prospects for expansion are being affected by structural adjustment programmes and changes in the macro-economic environment. Some of these changes introduce additional problems such as the reduction in resources available for government programmes; however, other changes such as the privatization of former government functions or the implications of the ongoing decentralization process, can offer new and promising opportunities for rural aquaculture.

6. FISHING ON THE HIGH SEAS FISHERIES

Latin American and Caribbean countries have been very active in the processes and discussions that led to the Agreement for the implementation of the Provisions of the United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea of 10 December 1982, relating to the Conservation and Management of Straddling Fish Stocks and Highly Migratory Fish Stocks.

The high seas surrounding the region are all subject to high seas fishing operations with intense fishing in some areas. In the coming years, the implementation of the agreement will probably lead to further discussions on the conservation and management of the fishery resources concerned. Another issue will be the nature of what type of institutional framework to set up, taking into account the present lack of management mechanisms.

SECTION C. OUTLOOK

Fisheries in Latin America and the Caribbean have not developed homogeneously. The characteristics of aquatic resources as well as historical, economic, social and political factors have both conditioned and added diversity to the structure of the fisheries sector. In general, regional fisheries are export oriented, with the exception of some countries, notably in the Caribbean. This review has noted some positive trends, mainly concerning the export profile of the fisheries economy. However, global trends for fish products in domestic markets have not been altogether negative. At this stage of exploitation of regional fishery resources, trends towards sustainability may continue in the future if effective fisheries management measures are carried out in the context of adequate institutional framework. Furthermore, government action will be needed to overcome certain bottlenecks particularly those confronting rural aquaculture. Steps should also be taken to improve the economic feasibility of increasing fish supplies from the considerable sources available, such as small pelagics, discards, by-catches and post-harvest losses.

The Latin American and Caribbean region has become more important in world fisheries over the last decade. Regional fish production has increased its share in total production, particularly helped by favourable trends in the anchoveta fishery. Regional fish exports have followed the path of world export trade. For certain commodities (e.g.: fish meal), Chile and Peru dominate the world market and shrimp exports from capture and farm fishing make a substantial contribution to global supplies. Demersal fisheries have maintained their modest importance, and tuna fisheries were the most dynamic activity in the 1992-94 period. The main contribution of the fisheries sector to the regional economy is the positive influence on the regional balance of trade for fish and fish products.

Global fish production trends in the Latin American and the Caribbean region will fluctuate according to the variability in abundance of small pelagic stocks, especially in Peru and Chile. However, excluding pelagic resources, regional fish production has shown a moderate but stable upward trend. In marine capture fisheries, short and medium-term production may plateau due to the fully or sometimes overexploited status of most of these resources. For these resources to be sustainable, it will be necessary to establish much better management systems and processes, and improve multidisciplinary technical advice to decision makers.

Current inland fisheries production trends will probably become more pronounced in the future. In the south, Argentina, Chile and parts of Brazil, trends to close fisheries to commercial exploitation and to reserve them for recreational and subsistence activities will be confirmed. In the central part of the continent, commercial fisheries on rivers and reservoirs will continue with generally low productivity. In the north, and in particular in the drought polygon of Brazil, in Cuba and in Mexico, intensified management of reservoirs through stocking and species introduction is expected to continue. Given these trends, increased production will be possible subject to careful management and the enhancement of Latin America reservoirs.

Export-oriented industrial aquaculture has expanded significantly in the region and still has moderate growth potential. Other types of aquaculture such as cultured-based fisheries in reservoirs, fresh water fish culture, mollusc and aquatic plants culture, have all grown less than expected. Regional aquaculture potential does not only derive from available resources (water, land, coasts, temperature, agriculture), but also from the existing institutional set-up, research and entrepreneurial capacity. Most problems regarding the slow growth of aquaculture concern these factors. One important consequence is that socially-oriented aquaculture as well as aquaculture oriented towards producing low value products for low income social sectors, have developed little. A future challenge will be to institute measures that take advantage of existing potential for these types of aquaculture production.

The industrial fishing fleet has continued to expand in recent years in response to positive market expectations and resource availability. The region currently has a ship building industry capable of producing to high technological standards. Many vessels are second hand and were imported or transferred from other less productive fishing grounds. Also newer, more modern vessels have been incorporated into the small pelagics fleet. Fleets have also grown in tuna, demersal and small pelagic fisheries. Taking into account that most fish stocks seem to be close to fully exploited or overexploited, future expansion in fleets should be moderate given that measures to regulate fishing effort are likely to improve.

Despite greatly reduced access to financial and technical assistance, small-scale fisheries continue to play a key role in the entire region as a food supplier, source of employment, and almost exclusive source of livelihood for thousands of people in marginal coastal areas. The degradation of coastal areas is reducing fishing potentials in many places. Several countries are taking steps to introduce integrated coastal area management. An interesting new development in several small scale fishing areas is the influence of international demand on fishing patterns. In many Central American countries, fishermen fish directly for export, obtaining higher prices for their catch. This trend represents a clear opportunity to start up a certain level of capitalization in small-scale fisheries. To take full advantage and consolidate such opportunities, small-scale fishing organizations should be supported through appropriate economic and institutional mechanisms, and marketing and distribution systems should be improved to increase fishermen' incomes and ensure lower prices to domestic consumers.

Well equipped with modern processing plants, the region can generally manufacture products to world standards and guarantee safe and wholesome products to customers. The level of infrastructure and technology in domestic markets is very different, especially for small-scale fisheries production, which frequently lacks physical infrastructure, services, and market access. It should be mentioned that small-scale fisheries infrastructure is being built up in several countries with funding from the Japanese Government.

For fish utilization, it is necessary to distinguish clearly between food and non-food uses. An increase in the utilization of small pelagics as food for direct human consumption is a key regional issue, which should be approached through intiatives based on economic, technological and marketing feasibility. Other potentially important sources of fish as food could be the improved utilization of by-catches, the reduction of discards, and the reduction of post-harvest losses.

The utilization of fish for food by processing type has followed historical patterns determined by available resources and market forces, particularly international demand. Today, although the international market still prevails, the industry seems to be eager to adapt available technologies rapidly to any positive domestic market trends. In this regard, urban agglomerations require special marketing logistics such as central wholesale markets and low cost retailing facilities to keep marketing costs down and products within the purchasing power of urban consumers.

Past trends indicate that catches for food uses have increased at a rate slightly outstripping population growth, with a resulting increase in per caput fish consumption. If market trends continue and consumption patterns remain unchanged, per caput fish consumption will keep pace with population growth in the short and medium term. This does not preclude the possibility that important changes in fish supply and demand structures could take place at sub-regional, national and local levels. The potential exists for fisheries to increase its contribution to food supplies and nutrition if fish became available at accessible prices. Towards this end it would be necessary to rationalize urban marketing systems by reducing costs and margins, promote the consumption of fish as wholesome food, and educate consumers and vendors so that the specific advantages of fish as food can be appreciated. Fish-eating countries, particularly in the Caribbean, will continue to depend on fish imports although improved management of their resources and exploitation of large pelagics could relive the cost of their import bill somewhat. In parallel, other foods may be substituted for fish to a certain extent.

Latin American and Caribbean export trends have been positive over the last ten years. Exports have grown 9% annually compared to 10% growth in world exports. Moreover, the annual rate of growth in the period 1991-93 was higher than the world level. Assuming consistently strong international demand in terms of volume and unit value, and given the orientation of regional export industry towards foreign markets, the value of fish exports can be expected to grow. An important precondition is that macro-economic and sectoral policies help to keep regional products competitive. Also, the trend of producing more value-added products rather that only selling raw material for the processing industries is likely to continue in the coming years. Sectors of the fishing industry could experience economic problems if certain trade and environment measures are adopted, as with the tuna-dolphin and shrimp-turtle issues.

Although at a preliminary stage, an interesting and positive development in intra-regional trade is the Mercosur framework, which groups Argentina, Uruguay, Brazil, Paraguay, and more recently Chile.

Macro-economic policies have had a considerable impact on the fisheries sector. Privatization has been started, and trade and administrative barriers to the production and export of fish and fish products have either been reduced or stopped. Most existing promotional economic instruments have been phased out and a more conducive environment to foreign investment has been generated. Previously, small producers had less access to financial markets and resented government structures dedicated solely to fisheries management. The maintenance of competitive production costs and low inflation rates, including the costs of imported inputs, is instrumental in continuing the impetus of fish exports.

Investment in the fisheries sector has been promoted by the favourable environment generated by macro-economic policy. These policies, together with high international demand, will continue to attract investment in the sector. In this context, there are good reasons to think that in any eventual absence of fisheries management ,many valuable fishery resources will be at risk. The macro-economic policies should incorporate fisheries sector requirements.

The region is well supplied with fisheries biologists, basic knowledge of fishery resources and updated information on modern management techniques. There is a long tradition of fisheries research in many countries. Unfortunately, fishery institutions have suffered during the adjustment process. Many of them are understaffed, underpaid and without adequate budgets. Two pressing issues have to be faced: on one hand, greater awareness of the need to pursue sustainable development through responsible fisheries practices, placing clear pressure on governments to act; on the other hand, the state of exploitation of fishery resources that require appropriate management systems. The issue is that fisheries administration structures should be restructured in a brief timespan, which has already happened in most countries, and that management measures should be implemented effectively.

National and regional policies for fisheries conservation, management and development are strongly influenced by a number of international fisheries conventions such as the ratification of UNCLOS, The New York Agreement of 10 December of 1992, relating to the Conservation and Management of Straddling Fish Stocks and Highly Migratory Fish Stocks and the recently adopted by consensus Code of Conduct of Responsible Fisheries. As mentioned in the previous paragraph, international mandatory and voluntary provisions are creating an international legal framework that will undoubtedly influence national and regional policies. Reference has been made to the key issue of strengthening effectively the institutional framework for fisheries management. However, management measures will also probably need to be taken at regional level within relevant regional or sub-regional cooperation frameworks. At the moment, most regional countries are assessing the implications of the above developments in order to adjust their national and international fisheries policy.