2.0 Review of AGRITEX programmes
2.1.1 Gender issues have not really been taken into account in the design of land use plans. Model B schemes is an example where cropping programmes did not take into account women's other household duties. The design of Model B schemes expected women to contribute an equal number of labour units as men to the cropping programme, but they are unable to do so because of other household duties. It should however be noted that resettlement planning is not the sole responsibility of AGRITEX, but is done in conjunction with other ministries.
Attempts at raising the women's dimension issues in land use plans have been made by the Chief Agricultural Planning Specialist who happens to be female. Efforts are being made to incorporate the interests and needs of people in the planning process. In some cases communal area people have been consulted with regards to the setting up and positioning of certain infrastructure such as wells and gates in grazing schemes.
Some officers involved in planning are undergoing training in Diagnostic and Design Surveys to facilitate the inclusion of socio-economic issues in the land use planning process. AGRITEX undertakes baseline and socio-economic surveys. AGRITEX has no capacity however to follow up the sociological issues and formulate strategies to deal with them. The department does not employ sociologists or social scientists to handle sociological issues in planning, monitoring and evaluation of its agricultural extension programmes.
Some AGRITEX field staff have come to realise that in dealing with farmers one should not overlook the socio-cultural issues in the adoption of technologies by farmers. There is need to look at the household as a unit of analysis in terms of production. This is part of the farming systems development approach envisaged in ZIM/91/005 to assist AGRITEX in utilising the approach.
The statement "Scientific principles operate the same irrespective of gender does not always hold true" (Feldstein and Poats, 1990). In rural communities major sociological and political blockages keep the poor women, and various other poor groups, from participating in formal extension programmes.
AGRITEX offers farm plans as a free service to farmers. Land use planning however is ahead of implementation due to limited financial resources. This is more pronounced in the case of the communal area reorganisation.
Requests for land sub-division in the small and large-scale sector is said to come mostly from widows. One of the reasons normally cited is that the women will be unable to cope in running large farms. The reasons however could be many, for example in the commercial farming areas, the women is hardly involved in the day-to-day running of the farm. In the small-scale sector for example EWs said that male farmers are reluctant to have their wives and to some extent children learn fanning operations, for fear of becoming redundant. One unfortunate consequence of this tendency occurred in Chitomborwizi small-scale farming community where male farmers perished in a bus disaster and the widows, and children are failing to cope. Matebeleland South province AGRITEX officials have made similar observations as EWs. There may be other reasons for widows to request for land subdivision which require follow-up. For instance, it might be that women fail to run the farms because there will be pressure from debtors, to make them repay debts incurred by the husband when alive. Inability to manage may be due to lack of agricultural training. It could be the pressure being exerted by other inheritors such as sons or husband's brothers. The lack of exposure to farm operations when the husband is alive is a critical issue.
It is the responsibility of every branch within AGRITEX to monitor and evaluate its own programmes and activities. The Monitoring and Evaluation unit has undertaken the evaluation of the following extension strategies; (i) T and V systems, (ii) farmer and EW contact, (iii) radio listening groups, and (iv) farm and work studies.
AGRITEX's monitoring and evaluation unit or any other unit, does not collect data disaggregated by gender. Constraints that pertain to certain categories of farmers are not determined. Information required to prescribe solutions to ease constraints to adoption of technology and increase women's farm productivity are not there. There is need for gender disaggregate data to determine the overall effectiveness of the programmes that AGRITEX offers.
The breakdown of data on gender is important to the determination of the contribution that women are making or may make in the development efforts within the rural economy. It is essential for programme evaluation and advocacy of agricultural activities that require policy change.
Data disaggregation on gender lines is also important in establishing the number of women and men who are living in absolute poverty, the extent to which sex biases contribute to such conditions and to devise ways and means whereby the conditions that contribute to such situations may be alleviated.
Gender specific data also provide the sort of information which assist decision-makers in the determination of policy, planners in the development of plans and field staff in the implementation of such plans. This is important in the light of the contributions that women can make in decision-making in planning and implementation of agricultural activities that affect them most.
The production, analysis and dissemination of meaningful gender-based data will help critically assess some of the beliefs which have developed concerning women's contribution to agricultural production and their contact with extension staff. The information to be obtained in the process must serve to increase the visibility of women as they benefit from and participate in agricultural programmes. Finally it provides the rationale and means for understanding gender roles and intra-household dynamics as they affect farm production and it will contribute to improved planning of extension.
Agricultural information is offered through the mass media and in-service training. From the overall training needs of field staff what has been observed to be lacking is the Agro-Home economics component.
Agro-Home Economics as an aspect of extension training is seen as necessary in terms of the information gap that seems to exist with regards to the nutrition value of certain crops. It is seen as important insofar as it seeks to demonstrate how to economise by growing of certain food crops which are essential as basic food crops.
Agro-Home Economics would also form part of the EW training so they can in turn advise farmers and answer some of the farmers basic questions related to certain crops. The Ministry of Health and Child Welfare though responsible for supplementary feeding programmes and setting up of nutrition gardens also rely on AGRITEX's EWs' advice for growing certain crops.
The Agro-home economics component is also being considered as a necessary component for training EWs. It will enable EWs to advise and answer farmer questions with regards to economic, nutritious and basic food crops. An agro-home economics manual has already been written.
An urgent need to train all levels of staff in AGRITEX on gender awareness, together with the development of gender training manuals was identified at the NORAD-funded workshop held early this year. The workshop was held to discuss baseline results from the pilot districts where the programme ZIM/023 Women's Extension Programme AGRITEX/NORAD is being implemented.
Some of the approaches devised for soil and water conservation were designed long back and have not been revised. Some of the approaches have proved unpopular to farmers, because of the huge labour demands required in the construction. For example, farmers have appreciated the need to have contour ridges in their fields, but some do not construct them Those who have done so, have reduced the width of the contours. Poor farmers, elderly people and women find it difficult to dig contours. Economically they find it difficult to hire labour to dig the contours.
The focus on animal production has been with the big livestock such as cattle. The rationale being that cattle are highly valued both for economic and socio-cultural reasons. Markets for large livestock are also developed in comparison with the small livestock. Women do participate in schemes such as small-scale dairy and fattening schemes, however the extent of their participating is not documented.
There is also a noticeable difference between men and women in terms of aquaculture preferences. Animal Production Specialists said that women prefer setting up small ponds, unlike men who prefer big dams. The use of netting in harvesting of fish may be a factor, in terms of why women prefer ponds to dams. This has been observed in Mhondoro. Follow-up is essential on this as the branch is in the process of expanding aquaculture in other areas, namely Murehwa, Masvingo and in the Midlands.
A study by Govereh, Chigume and Sen (1992) on constraints to the development of aquaculture and utilisation of small water bodies in Zimbabwe, has made the following observations, that; women are not involved in fishing because this is perceived as a male activity, Women from male-headed households are responsible for the day to day management of fish ponds owned by their husbands. And female headed households are not fish pond owners because they have poor access to land and labour.
Women are generally engaged in the rearing of small livestock, such as poultry, rabbits, goats, etc. In some instances groups have been formed and subsequently saving clubs have also been formed to support these programmes. A major weakness identified in these endeavors has been with the marketing as well as the limited technical advice. There has been little emphasis on the development of this sector of animal production. In terms of ownership for women, they do own small livestock and are able to enjoy the benefits directly, as little or no consultation is required in the disposal or selling of small livestock.
2.6.1 Gender issues arising from irrigation activities relate to the following; firstly the issue of the type of technology that will be adopted in the scheme whether flood or overhead irrigation. Both have implications on women's labour and health. In terms of labour contributions, considerations should be given to their continuing activities in dryland areas, in small gardens and at the household levels. These commitments have been ignored leading to over-estimates with regards to women's labour contributions in the schemes. For example, the one hectare efficiency plot size recommended for farmers, does not take into account women's roles in the drylands as well as in the household.
Secondly there is the issue of access and control of irrigable plots. This stems from the criteria used for selection of participants. For example, the use of Master Farmer Certificates which few women farmers have and the use of local leadership, may contribute to undue discrimination against women owning the plots. According to the EWs and farmers interviewed the commonly used eligibility criteria for selection of farmers into irrigation schemes is as follows:
- Master Farmer certificate
- Membership in the Agricultural Extension fan-per groups
- Age of the farmer between 18 and SO years
- Possession of basic farming implements and draught power
- Labour availability.
2.6.2 Impact of irrigation on women farmers
Some of the FAO (1990) studies have shown that with the introduction of technologies such as irrigation schemes, the women's workload is sometimes significantly increased without a concurrent increase in incomes. The same studies have shown that in irrigation schemes the women's workload increased disproportionately at the expense of the dryland cropping and other off-farm income earning activities. But this is not to say that irrigation schemes cannot benefit women. These studies (FAO) have also demonstrated that irrigation technology can increase crop production and make more water available to households and livestock. It also can actually reduce the time spent on fetching water. No studies of this nature have been carried out in Zimbabwe. Most have been limited to the role of women in irrigation schemes namely Madondo (1992) and Chimedza (1986). Farmers in general, however see themselves as benefiting from the schemes through access to money. In some cases discussed with the EWs, women farmers have no access and control over the income generated from the schemes. This may appear to be a household level issue but it will be important to examine the assumptions underlining scheme design. In a number of FAO ( 1990) studies it has been shown that, when irrigation schemes are designed on the mistaken assumption that the farm family has unified goals and motivations and that household responsibilities and incomes are jointly shared, pre-existing gender imbalances are likely to worsen.
Introduction of irrigation schemes has both positive and negative consequences, and AGRITEX as part of its advisory service should prepare farmers for these.
2.6.3 Marketing in irrigation
Marketing and transporting of produce from the irrigation schemes to the market was identified as a major problem in all the schemes visited. There was stiff competition with other schemes and the large commercial sector growing the same crops. Some women farmers from Insukamini irrigation scheme have ventured into neighbouring Botswana to sell their agricultural produce. This attempt by the women to overcome the problem of marketing surplus perishable produce 'has however proved futile and complex for them. The women would require information and advice on the technicalities of exporting crops, to other countries. The Marketing Adviser should investigate this initiative by women and establish whether there are mechanisms at the local level to facilitate the exporting of agricultural produce by smallholder farmers. This also includes some of the proposals by farmers to set up canning factories.
2.6.4 Health and environmental considerations in irrigation schemes
It has been found that in Zimbabwe, water borne diseases are more widespread in irrigation schemes than anywhere else (Taylor, 1986). Since it has been documented Madondo (1992) that women play a major role in irrigation schemes, their health may be at greater risk if health considerations are omitted during the design of the schemes.
On environmental matters these relate to the use and concentration of pesticides, herbicides and fertilisers on the scheme. Women again are more exposed and should therefore be trained in the management and use of these chemicals. There is also the issue of conservation measures which are not always in place at some schemes, leading to land degradation. This was evident in some of the schemes visited. The construction of mechanical conservation works has also implications on the women's labour.
2.6.5 Time use and labour availability
Labour availability is often handled in an unsatisfactory way in project preparation. There is heavy reliance on abstract deductive reasoning rather than empirical evidence. The total population of the project area may for instance be divided by the number of households to derive an average household size; then a series of assumptions are assigned (usually labour unit per adult male; 0.5-0.75 labour unit per adult female and 0.5 per children aged 12-15). This procedure frequently leads to overestimation of actual labour availability because it overlooks variation in household size as well as constraints on the labour supply deriving from the gender division of labour, migration and off-farm employment, children's school attendance and time required for domestic tasks.
By now it is widely recognised by Development experts that the disregard of the gender division of labour can lead to mistaken assumptions about labour availability, and over estimation of labour availability for irrigation schemes.
In the Insukamini scheme, so far three people have left the scheme, one female and the rest male. The reasons given was failure to cope with the labour required to run the plots. For the lady that left the scheme, it was due to old age, she could not cope with the demands of the scheme. Neither did she have sufficient funds to hire labour.
Given a scenario where a farmer has 0.5 hectare in irrigation and five hectares of dryland an average farmer cannot cope with the labour requirements. The farmer will be forced to choose either to neglect the dryland or irrigation plot during the rain season.
2.6.6 Tenure of irrigated land
The majority of farmers on the smallholder irrigation plots are women, though the plotholders may be registered in the husband's name or "normally" the head of household (see Table 1 p18)
There is a great deal of variations depending on whether it is a traditional irrigation scheme established prior to independence. Prior to independence the head of household was undisputable male and the plot was required to be registered in the husband's name, regardless of whether he was around to do the farming. Nowadays, with women being regarded as majors in their own right, women can register plots in their married names, or in their own right. Their status is not relevant so long as she satisfies the selection criteria for the scheme. There is also the conditionality that those who register for the plots should farm the land and attend meetings and training courses for the irrigators. This is one of the reasons why there is an increase in the numbers of women registering for plots in their own right. In terms of policy formulation this is important. If certain guidelines are set that would ensure direct targeting of beneficiaries this would be more progressive. Registration requirements for plotholders in irrigation schemes set by AGRITEX and local authorities ensures that the person who farms the plot benefits directly. In most cases it is women. The women are also increasingly having access and control over irrigable plots.
There is a greater proportion of males registered in irrigation schemes found in resettlement than in communal areas. In resettlement areas, this is so because males are expected to be on the farms and not go elsewhere in search of employment.
Registering a plot in the husband's name who is away most of the time can prove problematic in terms of getting loans. The credit card has to be in the plotholder's name to facilitate loan application and delivery of agricultural inputs.
In introducing new schemes, certain assumptions about the household should be put to test. For example, age restrictions based on the age of the household head who may be old and a polygamist with young wives. These wives may be excluded from participating in a scheme because the husband is too old. Women in polygamous households are disadvantaged in terms of access to resources.
This entitlement to irrigable plot or lack of it is also a sore point with regards to women, especially as it relates to inheritance and women's productivity in the schemes. One old scheme visited had a one hectare plot fallow because the couple who had been cultivating the plot had divorced. The couple had no children. Another abandoned plot was due to the fact that the woman had given up, because the money generated from the scheme was being used by her husband to marry more wives.
TABLE 1: DISTRIBUTION OF PLOTS BETWEEN MALE AND FEMALE FARMERS IN IRRIGATION SCHEMES VISITED
Scheme name |
No. of Plotholds |
M |
F |
Ave. size each |
Total ha of scheme |
Date established |
Insukamini (Midlands) |
41 |
14 |
27 |
0.5 |
2.2 |
1988 |
Mkoba (Midlands) |
102 |
72 |
30 |
0.1 |
10.2 |
1968 |
Hama Mavhaire (Midlands) |
92 |
11 |
72 |
1 |
92 |
1992 |
Nyamaropa (Manicaland) |
395 |
300 |
95 |
0.8 |
496 |
1962 |
Mavhurazi |
28 |
19 |
9 |
0.16 |
4.6 |
1989 |
Murara (Mashonaland East) |
36 |
5 |
36 |
0.5 |
18 |
1989 |
NOTE:
Only six irrigation schemes were visited on this exercise. There are 65 smallholder irrigation schemes in Zimbabwe covering 400 hectares and support 6,000 farmers. Issues arising from each irrigation are unique, and therefore more investigations are necessary.
With respect to horticultural crop production and marketing, EWs confirmed that women's participation at the smallholder level is quite significant. Most of the demonstrations on horticulture are attended by women from both communal and small-scale fanning areas. Farmers' major problems in horticulture are to do with pests control and the marketing of produce.
Specialists in horticulture felt that horticulture is still being seen as a sideline by most of the AGRITEX staff and there seems to be reluctance in its promotion in some areas. The specialists find it difficult to promote especially in dry areas. Farmers are therefore denied a training in horticulture by this lack of interest on the part of other AGRITEX staff. This however is said to vary among the various agricultural regions. Farmers especially women engage in small-scale horticultural activities, are therefore denied a training in horticulture by this lack of interest on the part of other AGRITEX staff. Lack of interest in horticulture is said to vary among the various regions of the country. For example, in the dry areas of the country. Some EWs felt that it was futile to concentrate on horticulture in areas that are dry with no water for carrying out the horticultural activities. Also farmers were said to be reluctant to learn knowledge that they would never apply.
Tobacco is one of the cash crop with huge returns. In terms of labour requirements it is labour intensive. It is one of the cash crops being promoted in both resettlement and communal areas. Tobacco institutes now accommodate women trainees but do not offer them training at higher levels. One woman trained in tobacco farming has been withdrawn from the resettlement area where she was farming. It will be important to know the reason why (Chasi 1993, personal communication). There seems to be problems in terms of what specialists in tobacco are supposed to do, like for example, climbing on top of barns. Since a lot of women at smallholder level are now growing tobacco and it is one of the largest foreign exchange earners, impediments to women's training opportunities at both farmer and professional levels should be looked at. While emphasis should be placed on food crops, it is also important to encourage women's involvement in the more lucrative cash crops.
Food crops such as cowpeas, groundnuts, beans, sweet potatoes, etc. women grow them to supplement family diet, but are labour intensive. Normally in terms of crop priority they are the least favoured in terms of the land allocation which is nominally marginal land, and time allocated only after tending of the "major" crops such as maize. Some of the food crops such as cowpeas and beans are inter-cropped with maize to maximise returns. Ibis inter-cropping is one of the major reasons why farmers resisted mono-cropping in the past which was one of the Master Farmer requirements.
Most food crops are some of the neglected items on both the research and extension agendas. There has been no extension drive towards these basic food crops. Attempts are being made by some non-governmental organisations to promote the food crops for example, a GTZ programme in Masvingo. Besides focusing on food crops the project does also address broader Bender issues.
In addition crops that are ideally suited and recommended for the dry and arid, semi-arid zones such as sorghum are labour intensive, especially with regards to bird scaring and processing. Women have to pound the sorghum to powder after extensive winnowing. In terms of time required in comparison to maize, these crops take more time. There seems to be no developments, in research into these crops, beginning with agro-ecological suitability, and technology for processing them and also farmer preferences are not tested which is important for adoption. Farmer response to newly introduced crops should be tested for their socioeconomic value and their labour requirements. Small grains are recommended for the dry areas of Zimbabwe but farmers are reluctant to grow them. Basically this has to do with the labour intensive nature required in the cultivation and processing these crops. The sorghum crop is susceptible to Quelier birds and so one has to spent hours guarding the crop when it is ripening. According to studies in Zambia by Feldstein and Poats (1990) bird scaring accounts for 52% of the total labour expended in growing sorghum. Because bird damage contributes to low sorghum yields, women spend almost 12 hours per day in the fields scaring away birds. The processing of small grains takes a lot of women's time as this involves winnowing, pounding and grinding. The producer price for small grains is very low in comparison with other large grains such as maize. So again farmers are reluctant to invest money and time on the small grains. Nowadays few people find the meal prepared from small grains palatable, so that is another reason why farmers are reluctant to plant these crops.
Local marketing of products poses no problem for women. Markets that involves travelling from the community are problematic and this is mostly done by men. In Mashonaland East for example, farmers are organised into commodity production groups and sales of the produce are organised that way too. Men transport the produce to the markets in Harare and Marondera, while women remain behind in the rural areas. Women's marketing ability of agricultural produce in far away places from home is constrained by institutional and social biases especially young couples.
Women would require training in marketing, management of small enterprises, credit and savings. Different studies have shown that market opportunities and transport linkages can stimulate women farmers to produce food surplus and thus augment household income. Currently AGRITEX is offering no advisory service on marketing strategies.
