4.0 Training and extension issues
On training and extension issues the major issues are summarised below as follows:
The quality of extension training seems to be going down at a time when women are now taking up the opportunity. Especially with the Master Farmer training programme. This has been attributed to inadequate resources to support the programmes. Farmers are not receiving for example badges when they qualify for the Master Farmer.
Lessons to farmers would be more effective if visual aids are shown. Extension workers feel that they would require these visual aids for demonstration to farmers.
Issues that were raised and of major concerns to the extensionist in the field are as follows: social dimension of extension which is not currently being addressed; gender issues and the characteristics of farmers; cultural inhibitions to successful implementation of extension programmes; programming of extension activities which do not over-load the farmer and the extensionist; relevance of training farmers for advanced and ordinary Master Farmer certificates.
On sociological and gender issues, its absence in the department means that there is a lack of knowledge base to assist and direct the extension activities and it is not included in the programmes of training. If the real farmer has not been identified this may mean that the extension message has no specific target. The process of decision making in the farmer situation is not understood neither is there an attempt to understand the farmers' priorities nor problems or explore the farmers' potential. This would help AGRITEX understand that the priorities they reflect as a government department may not necessarily be in consonant with priorities of a farm family.
For a technical oriented department that has to deal with farmers, some level of social sensitivity is required. In-service training that would make the staff have an appreciation of gender and social issues is essential.
The resource disparities among farmers should be recognised and acknowledged so as to gear training and technology appropriate to address these practical issues.
The emphasis by AGRITEX to date has been on putting or directing resources towards technical training of subject matter specialists, with little emphasis on the understanding of the clientele and the EWs.
The basic extension methods course given to new recruits when they join AGRITEX should include a gender awareness course as part of the induction. The content has to be reviewed.
Reporting system is said to be technically oriented with emphasis on numbers. There is no room for example to report on the socio-economic factors which inhibit farmers from adopting certain technologies even if they are, these are screened and left at supervisors level. In a technical oriented report social issues are viewed as irrelevant.
4.2.1 Group approach
The group approach to extension is very much now favoured in terms of cost effectiveness and saving time. Farmer groups on the other hand can programme their work and the timing of meetings with the EW. If the group is strong and dynamic it is able to initiate demand led extension and dictate the time and issues to be discussed with an EW. The formation of commodity groups is critical in also making extension to be responsive to farmers' needs and priorities.
Since independence, AGRITEX has directed itself increasingly to groups of farmers. Through establishing Master Farmer Clubs (now incorporated in the ZNFU), good farming competition groups; and savings clubs, AGRITEX developed various forums for farmers (Truscott 1987:5). Four characteristic types of farmer organisations are enlisted by Bratton; information groups, labour groups; market groups and multipurpose groups. (Bratton 1986 p371) makes the following observations:
"The emerging pattern of membership by wealth is accentuated when the sex of respondents is taken into account. Women most frequently belong to the poorer groups that pool labour, men by contrast, dominate the market groups which specialise in bulk commodity transactions. Culturally this reflects a division of labour in which women undertake the basic production tasks and men control the allocation of surplus. Labour groups do, however, offer women a potential base from which to organise and accumulate wealth for themselves, providing they occupy the executive positions of leadership on group committees. Otherwise, the social composition of farmer organisations does not challenge the traditional patterns of gender inequality. Indeed in labour groups where a membership of female workers undertakes field operations under the direction of a committee of male farmers, group organisations may actually reinforce the subordination of women" (Bratton 1986 p 374).
Bratton and Truscott conclude that groups of farmers have more access to production services than individual farmers.:
"The diffusion of technical innovation, whether from scientific research or the accumulated experience of farmers themselves (particularly MFs') is clearly heightened by the existence of voluntary organisations" (Bratton 1986 pp377).
Truscott adds:
"...over and above the important function of providing a collective forum for learning and training, groups also get together for such important functions as the sharing of implement, labour-sharing, sharing of draft power, collectively organised buying of inputs and marketing of produce - activities which have such important productivity implications" (Truscott 1988 p76).
AGRITEX aims at supporting this kind of group functions because it wants to increase the "self-reliance" of farmers. But in practice the Extension Service has not yet adopted the right strategies to reach this goal, as observed by Bratton (1986),Truscott (1988) and Drinkwater (1987). It is hoped that the development of an appropriate approach would take a gender perspective.
The women's groups formed through the then Ministry of Community Development and Women's Affairs were also regular recipients of agricultural information, and advice. EWs have been able to respond to these groups' needs when they asked for advisory assistance through the Ward Community Development Worker. This cooperative approach by the two departments had the potential of enabling large number of women to receive agricultural information (Mutimba 1987 7p22-23 in FAO 1987). The extent to which this potential was exploited by AGRITEX is not documented.
In view of the above review of the group approach, in terms of its effectiveness to enable AGRITEX to reach women farmers more, one can only conclude that the group strategy minimises the problem; it does not completely eliminate it. EWs 's contact with [arm women can be facilitated by adjusting the contents of extension messages (to focus on crops controlled by women), the timing and pace of contacts, the extension language and the mode of contact. Due to social reasons it is usually easier for male EWs to work with female or mixed - sex contact groups as opposed to individual female contact farmers.
4.2.2 Master Farmer Training
From 1982 to 1990 a total of 67,779 farmers graduated in the Ordinary level Master Farmer training programme. Women constituted only 33.2%. For the same period at Advanced Master Farmer training level, a total of 7,256 farmers were trained. Of these 24.5% were women . On this aspect of training AGRITEX extension service is having a limited outreach on women. For details see table 2.
TABLE 2: MASTER FARMERS TRAINED DURING THE PERIOD 1982 TO 1990 DISAGGREGATED BY GENDER
Province |
Total for M.F. Ordinary Level |
Percentage by sex |
Total for M.F. Advanced Level |
Percentage by sex | ||
Male |
Female |
Male |
Female | |||
Midlands |
9,469 |
65 |
35 |
959 |
78 |
22 |
Mash Cetral |
8,443 |
85 |
15 |
864 |
87 |
13 |
Mash West |
8,263 |
84 |
16 |
839 |
97 |
3 |
Mash East |
6,863 |
86 |
14 |
523 |
91 |
9 |
Mat North |
2,695 |
61 |
39 |
83 |
51 |
49 |
Mat South |
5,800 |
42 |
68 |
507 |
43 |
57 |
Masvingo |
17,613 |
65 |
35 |
2,694 |
75 |
25 |
Manicaland |
8,633 |
48 |
52 |
787 |
52 |
48 |
Overall Total |
67,779 |
66.8% |
(33.2%) |
7,256 |
75.5% |
(24.5%) |
Note: Mat South ad North and Manicaland may have a significantly higher percentage of female traind in the Master Farmer training programmes, due to male migration. Migration in more pronounced in these areas.
There has been an increase in the number of farmers (fe/male) joining the Master Farmer training programme. This is because the certificate is increasingly being used as a requirement in joining various new agricultural schemes. In the past it was also used to select farmers for the smallscale farming areas. Now it is used as one criterion for selection to join irrigation and resettlement schemes, for joining the Zimbabwe Farmers' Unions, and for tax exemptions in buying other agricultural inputs.
It is usually the old generations that attends the Master Farmer training, those above 35 years. For both male and female farmers.
To qualify as a Master Farmer one has to demonstrate the skills practically. In the event that one does not have direct access to land, one may not be able to demonstrate.
Prior to 1980 (independence) women were not awarded Master Farmer certificate even in instances were they had completed the course. The absentee husband was awarded instead and the certificate written in his name. The rationale behind it was that women did not own any property and national registration cards were also a requirement. That also explains why there are fewer number of Master Farmer trained women. It was also unheard of, for a women to get a Master Farmer certificate before the husband did. It is still an issue now for some households.
There is evidence to support that there is a high drop out rate of women attending the two-year ordinary Master Farmer course. It was confirmed by EWs and farmers. This issue has never been investigated fully and yet its relevance is very crucial. The fact that the Master Farmer certificate is one criterion being used for selection of farmers participating in new programmes such as irrigation and resettlement schemes makes it even more relevant.
The reasons mentioned by women farmers for dropping out of the Master Farmer training course are sighted as when a family crisis occurs. The crisis may take the form of illness or death in the family, or drought. When a crisis of this nature occurs a woman's time will be occupied because she has to perform other duties to deal with the crisis. The transfer of an EW to another area is a factor which should not be, because the one taking over should get some handover notes and carry on from where his/her predecessor left of. Some did not have the fields in which to demonstrate the skills learnt. For those with fields, some farmers said they did not have money to purchase the necessary agricultural inputs. Some mentioned that they were not aware of such a programme as the Master Farmer course. Some married women who had come from home/districts areas where Master Farmer training is effective and the farmers keen, did not know how to initiate these programmes in the new homes. This is especially difficult for them in their capacity as varoora (sister-in-law) and vatorwa the latter literally translated means foreigner, so they have no say except to accept their new homes as they are. Some complained that they really did not have the time to attend to the meetings. These reasons coincide with the reasons given in the recent baseline study (1993), carried out by AGRITEX Monitoring and Evaluation Unit.
The drop out rate for women in the Master Farmer training programmes could also be statistically significant because now there is an increase the number of women undergoing the training. For example in the sample for the " baseline study (1993) " 42 of the 69 farmers currently undergoing training are women. This compares well with the figures from the provinces of Master Farmer trainees as shown below:
M |
F | |
Nkayi |
7 |
22 |
Masvingo |
7 |
43 |
The figures are for one ward respectively, in each district.
In Mashonaland Central Province, for example, since 1954, a total of 5,396 Master Farmers have been Brained, and of these 190 are de facto female heads of households, and 410 are female heads of households and the rest are men. For the advanced Master Farmers training 709 farmers have passed, of these 25 are female heads of households and 23 are de facto female heads of households and the rest are male.
There is now a general trend towards having more women joining in the Master Farmer training course, but the statistics is not gender disaggregated and therefore difficult to interpret. More women heads of household attend Master Farmer courses than women in male headed households. One can only surmise at the reasons as they are not documented. It is possible there is a rationalisation of the division of labour in terms of male attending certain meetings and the wife remaining behind to do other duties. There is a possibility that the husband would wish to get the certificate first before the wife does.
Recommendations
There is a need for gender related courses as well as leadership courses for women to enhance their agricultural productivity. The timing for meetings and courses should be determined by farmers (women) and the following time preferences have been observed. During the summer season farmers prefer afternoon sessions, to allow them to do farm work in the morning. In the afternoon children will be back from school and can take over tasks such as herding cattle. During the dry season farmers would prefer courses to be held in the morning, so that in the afternoon they can work on handicrafts. The programming of activities together with farmers is highly recommended in extension.
There are conflicting reports with regards to the issue of whether the gender of the EW has an impact or not in the effectiveness of extension. Some EWs have argued that the individual's ability for organising farmers Is more important and the character of the person is also put to test by the farmers. But some EWs have generally felt that female EWs have more impact on farmers especially female farmers than male EWs. With women EWs, female farmers feel they can discuss their social problems and are more open and truthful about why they cannot adopt certain technical advice. Even reasons for failure to save money to buy agricultural inputs for the next season are discussed openly.
In terms of working to rules, some EWs feel that men are prone to drink and have a higher absenteeism from duty than female EWs. In terms of programming activities women EWs are said to be more sensitive to women's other chores. Because of this women EWs say that they are able to keep time and stick to relevant issues, that relate to the farmers' needs, than their male counterparts.
Some EWs have raised the issue that the EW is wholly and foremost a profession but rules of society govern the way the EW is expected to behave. The EW also relies on his/her knowledge of the clientele. So with personal problems relating to farming activities, women are said to be freer to discuss these with female EWs than the male.
Participation by farmers in the Master Farmer training course may be influenced by the sex of the trainer. In the Mutoko case for example some even feel that the quality of extension will improve if we have more women EWs. One EW in the Mutoko district stated that in a group of trainees that she took over from her predecessor a male EW, there were 12 male and 1 female trainees. Now in the new group she is currently training there are 14 male and 9 female trainees. The reason for this increase according to the female farmers was because she is a female EW. The women felt free to come and the men had no objections.
So there is need to explore the issue of the gender of EWs further. There seems to be a trend that in the remote areas, the gender of EW is significant. One is inclined to believe that if one puts female EWs in these remote areas, they are likely to be more effective in reaching out the women farmers. But again this could work negatively for women EWs who would have to be deployed in the remote areas.
A review of some of the technology developed for communal area farmers from a gender perspective has revealed the following observations:
- The ripper plough was not popular with farmers especially women farmers, because it tended to reduce labour requirements for ploughing but increased labour for weeding. Ripping and zero-tillage as opposed to conventional ploughing and cultivating offers potential for more timely planting. The main agronomic disadvantage of low tillage systems is the potential build-up of weeds and compacted zones. Weeding is mostly done by women and this means increased labour.
- The high wing ridger designed for making ridges was too heavy to use by women and therefore is not adopted by farmers. The same case with the de-huller. It had again to be modified after it proved to be too heavy for women.
- The use of cultivators developed to reduce weeding time again has not been appreciated by women farmers. The cultivators are therefore hardly used. One of the reasons being that women, inspite of AGRITEX advising them to do mono-cropping, end up with mixed cropping to maximise the benefits. Women farmers should therefore be consulted in the initial tests of these machineries. A sampling of communal area and resettlement area farmers who will be the end users of the machinery would be advisable and critical in terms of testing the usefulness of a given technology.
Again, like in all AGRITEX's spheres of activities there is no gender disaggregated feedback in terms of farmers' response to technology development This is important because technology is developed to meet the people's needs. Those who normally use it should offer their response. This will also lead the farmers to be aware that such a technology exists and determine its usefulness. Tied to this is the issue of whether the formulation of technical packages and recommendations does give sufficient priority to the primary objectives of raising communal area farmer incomes. Technology development is based on certain assumptions. For example, a typical one is that draught power is available to the farmer. The farmers especially women are looking for labour saving technology and not technology that is not compatible with their farming system. Technology recommendations do not always fully consider the major constraints facing communal farmers including rainfall and seasonal labour shortages.
There is a comparative lack of improved technology for the more draught-tolerant small grains (sorghum and the millets) that play a central role in the food security strategies of rural household. This exacerbates the problems in Natural Region V and places poorer resource deficient household at a disadvantage.
The most successful and widely adopted technologies are the comparatively high input and high cost systems of maize and cotton. The adoption of these technologies however, is highly skewed and the majority of communal area farmers have not found it possible to adopt all of the technical packages of these crops.
A theme which emerges is the lack of analysis that takes full account of the farm profitability of the technologies, for example fertiliser use.
Some of the factors identified in the World Bank (1991 p 21) that constrain the adoption of improved technology in communal areas are as follows; "agro-ecological factors", including, (i) rainfall and soil fertility, (ii) individual farmer resource constraints including draught power, labour bottlenecks and availability of land, (iii) input supply and marketing systems, (iv) social and cultural constraints (v) weaknesses in technology transfer systems and limited income earning opportunities. These factors cut across gender but impact on women more because of their status in society.
One can sum this up to say many agricultural technologies including conservation measures, have had limited success often because of the socio-economic, agronomic and ecological inappropriateness of these designed interventions. This problem is increasingly recognized.
It is therefore recommended that in view of the disproportionate contribution that women make to the total farm system and farm economy calls for greater focus on technology related issues affecting women:
- greater research attention needs to be devoted to small grains,
- improving farm incomes should be the primary goal of all technology generation and transfer systems; and,
- the development of household labour saving devises must be viewed as an integral part of the technology adoption and income improving process.
