The Shilat has done an excellent job of promoting and expanding aquaculture in the IRI since the early 1 980s, especially considering the novelty of the practice in the country and the limited experience of fisheries staff. In addition, institutions have been established to support, monitor and manage the sub-sector. In view of Shilat's ambitious development strategy, it is now necessary to improve production practices and to consolidate and strengthen infrastructure, development programmes and technical expertise . This section provides a summary diagnosis of the sub-sector and identifies key issues to be addressed for the future development of the sector.
4.1.1 Production methods
Production inputs and methods vary widely among farms and provinces; there does not appear to be a standard technology package for the production of market fish. In general, yields per unit area are not the optimum for the inputs currently used, which is a critical objective in view of land and water limitations. Feeding and fertilization rates are often not in line with stocking rates, and methods used for the application of feeds and fertilizers can be substantially improved. In fact, it is suspected that in many farms feeding may not be required at all at current stocking rates of species consuming feeds.
The individual area of production ponds also appears to be too large, which tends to make intensive pond management more difficult and results usually in lower yields than those attained from smaller, more easily managed ponds. However, the optimum pond area can only be determined on an economic basis by comparing pond construction costs and yields for various pond areas.
It is felt that production rates can be increased in the north and south to about 4–5 mt and 6–7 mt respectively, with the current production system, by proper planning and application of inputs according to production targets and by more intensive management of ponds. It should be noted, however, that the present production systems do not permit achievement of optimum yield from the traditional carp polyculture system. The stocking of grass carp is inhibited by the reported poor survival of fingerlings, frequent losses to diseases and uncertain availability of fodder. Stocking of bighead carp has been drastically reduced in many farms due to poor market demand, attributed to a lower dressing percentage compared to other carps. Accordingly, there is an urgent need to amend the production system to deal with these developments by the adjustment of inputs and/or the replacement of some species. Shilat should conduct the necessary tests in its own facilities and assess the economic viability of the amended system before extending the results to farmers.
Tests are also required to investigate the possibility of utilizing the more advanced Chinese carp polyculture systems as well as the intensive culture methods for common carp (with aeration, pellet feeding and higher densities). Research is urgently needed to screen more valuable endemic species (e.g. Barbus spp., Rutilus frisii, Metapenaeus affinis, etc.) for culture as possible replacements for low value carps, before importation of exotic species.
4.1.2 Hatcheries and seed supply
Chinese carps and common carp were introduced into the IRI for aquaculture from eastern Europe (Hungary, Romania and the former Soviet Union) between 10 and 15 years ago. The number of fish introduced appears to have been large, in the order of tens of thousands; therefore, the basic founding stocks seems to have been adequate and is not faced with an immediate problem of inbreeding and loss of genetic resources. However, there is some problem with the identification of pure bighead and silver carps. It is believed that Shilat farms in Gilan accidentally crossed these species in the past; the resulting hybrids are reported to exhibit poor growth and/or survival in ponds. The problem of misidentification of bighead and silver carps during the spawning process has also been observed in the Philippines, Thailand and China.
The basic constraints to development and improvement of hatcheries in the IRI are the lack of programmes for broodstock monitoring and evaluation and the fact that staff are either unfamiliar with or do not practice basic hatchery practices to preserve genetic resources. There is a general perception that the quality of cultured fish is decreasing. In the absence of adequate records, it is not possible to determine if this is true and, if so, whether the decrease is due to genetic, husbandry or environmental causes. In the case of hybridization between bighead and silver carp, the cause is clearly genetic.
Procedures for the genetic screening of carps intended for introduction into the IRI are lacking. The replacement of broodstock in areas reporting reduced vitality with pure lines from other locations in the country or, if necessary, by importation of new brood stock after proper genetic screening would resolve the problem indicated in the paragraph above if this would be confirmed. It was also found that the capabilities of Shilat's staff in genetics need to be strengthened by the introduction of appropriate courses in university curricula and through special short-term training courses.
Methods for carp breeding and mass production of fry are well under control. However, efficient and simpler to operate Chinese type hatcheries may be a better proposition for the private sector and for Shilat's restocking programmes in the near future. Research is needed, however, to overcome the reported problems in the breeding of grass carp in the arid and warm climate of Khuzestan province.
4.1.3 Feed, fertilization and feeding
Fish feed manufacture: Although the feed lines produced by Chineh Co. were satisfactory in terms of the formulation approach employed and physical stability of the resulting pellets produced, a number of constraints were identified, including (i) the lack of fine grinding facilities for individual feed ingredients,(ii) reliance of dietary formulations on imported protein sources (fish meal, soybean meal), (iii) the use of a poultry vitamin/mineral premixes for all formulations, (iv) low nutrient levels within trout production rations, and (v) absence of government legislation concerning quality control standards for manufactured fish feeds. In order to improve the quality of the feed lines produced by Chineh Co. for Shilat it will therefore be necessary to (i) grind all feed ingredients so as to pass through a 0.75-mm mesh screen (0.50-mm screen in the case of premixes and starter diets) prior to pelleting, (ii) reduce and/or replace the level of imported feed ingredients with local protein sources, (iii) upgrade all the vitamin premix formulations so that the overall vitamin levels are in accordance with the known dietary requirements of fish, and (iv) increase the dietary protein level of trout grower rations to at least 45%.
Fertilization and feeding practices: Apart from the absence of a well defined fertilization/ manuring programme the fertilizers and manures were generally applied only on one side of the pond. It is essential that fertilizers and manures be distributed over the entire pond surface on a daily basis if maximum fertilization efficiency and fish productivity is to be obtained. On a general basis, chemical fertilization programmes should be targeted so as to maintain soluble nitrogen and orthophosphate at 0.95 mg N/l and 0.1–0.5 mg P/l respectively. Similarly, the maximum amount of manure that a pond can safely digest without undesirable anaerobic effects is about 100–200 kg manure dry weight/ha/day or 70–140 kg organic matter/ha/day. However, as a general rule the manuring rates can be computed as dry organic matter at 2–4% of the standing fish biomass per day. (These figures need to be adjusted to local climatic conditions, pond depth and stocking rates.)
Supplementary diet feeding also suffers from the lack of a standardized approach; feeding rates are arbitrarily set rather than scientifically based. Since the success of a supplementary diet feeding programme depends upon the feeding regime (level and frequency) and feed application method employed, supplementary feeds should be fed on a little and often basis over the entire pond water surface every day according to fish appetite by hand feeding or through the use of raised underwater feeding platforms/trays, floating feeding collars or bait-rod feeders. Similarly, in view of the low fish stocking densities employed by private farmers (< 6,000 fish/ha), emphasis should be given to the use of simple low-cost agricultural by-products as supplementary feed inputs such as mill sweepings, rice bran, Azolla, composted rice straw and husks. Similarly, if supplementary feeds such as whole cereal grains are to be used (i.e. wheat, barley) they should first be germinated prior to feeding by soaking in water, germination facilitating the destruction of the anti-nutritional factors present and increasing the aminoacid availability and vitamin content of the cereal grains (at present cereal grains are soaked in water overnight to facilitate sinking when feeding).
In contrast to complete diet feeding, the formulation of a supplementary diet is dependent upon the standing crop (i.e. total biomass) of fish present and the consequent availability of natural food organisms within the pond. For example, in tests outside the IRI, no difference was observed in the growth of common carp in earthen ponds when fed a cereal grain (sorghum) or a formulated pellet containing 22.5% protein up to a standing crop of 800 kg fish/ha or between a ration containing 22.5% protein and a ration containing 27,5% protein up to a standing crop of 1 400 kg/ha. In view of the above it is perhaps not surprising that little or no difference was observed in the reported growth performance and production of common carp within the private farms visited whether fed rice bran costing 50 Rials/kg, a cereal grain costing 1 50 Rials/kg, or a commercially formulated carp diet costing 500 Rials/kg. Clearly, the nutritional and economic benefit of pelleted feeds will only be achieved if higher fish (common carp) stocking densities are employed. However, if higher fish stocking densities are to be employed (> 10 000 fish/ha) then ponds will have to be of a much smaller and more manageable size (<2 ha) for maximum benefit to be gained from pelleted diet feeding regimes.
Clearly, if average pond yields are to be increased to 5–6 metric tons per hectare then fertilizer and feed management practices will have to be greatly improved within Shilat-operated and privately owned fish farms in IRI. The major constraints to achieving this objective are: (i) the lack of trained and experienced government staff, (ii) lack of up-to-date information on feeds and feeding practices for distribution to fish farmers, (iii) lack of information concerning food/feeding costs and the economics of fish production and (iv) lack of a Government extension service trained in the use and implementation of appropriate feeding techniques.
Extension staff must also encourage farmers to keep careful records on feeding, feed costs and production results to permit the analysis of feeding economics. In addition, a survey of agricultural feeds and fertilizer resources is needed to maximize their use and to develop a strategy for pond fertilization and fish feeding according to the availability and cost of these resources.
4.1.4 Market Prospects
So far freshwater fish has had to compete with the supplies of marine fish and its substitutes like chicken and meat. The supplies of marine fish will most probably not increase any further due to the apparent resource constraint in the present areas of operations of the Iranian fleet. Increase in demand of fish therefore would have to be met through an increase in fish production from culture. Moreover, the large, indirect subsidies of poultry and cattle feed will be diminished since Government has changed the favourable exchange rate2 for imports of these feeds (about 70% of these feeds are now being imported). This action is to lead to a serious price increase of chicken and meat and will favourably affect the demand for fish. (The present retail price of chicken and meat ranges from R 1 600 to R 2 000 and R 1 700 to R 4 500/kg respectively, while the present retail price of freshwater carp ranges from R 2 000 to R 3 000/kg). Market prospects for freshwater fish would thus appear to be quite favourable.
Apart from the improvements in yields in carp farming, further exploitation of large areas of marginal land with sufficient water availability in Khuzestan can also contribute to a production increase of carp in IRI. Plans to this end have already been made, but a prudent approach to further expansion would be commendable since the possible improvement in yields from existing carp ponds would already provide the market with a substantial increase in supplies. Market response should be strictly monitored, therefore, to enable Shilat to anticipate problems and to amend development plans as necessary.
Shilat's intention to devote most of its hatchery capacity for producing fingerlings for stocking and withdrawing from the production of fry for carp farming seems to be the appropriate strategy in light of the present status of aquaculture in the IRI. In view of this, Shilat should devote more attention to the overall management of large reservoirs and natural inland waters rather than merely to stocking, which at present appears to be done on an ad-hoc basis. Specific baseline studies of reservoirs and natural waters to underpin stocking plans do not appear to have been carried out, and monitoring of stocking results and catches of stocked species appears to be inadequate. Record keeping is also not in place.
In view of this, it is impossible to make a proper diagnosis of aquaculture-based fisheries in natural and man-made freshwater bodies other than to stress the need for the establishment of a more concerted effort for the management of these bodies, including the stocking programme. A survey of reservoirs and inland waters will be needed to provide the necessary background information, since most of the available literature deals almost exclusively with the Caspian Sea drainage area and much of it is dated.
4.3.1 Shilat (Department of Fisheries)
The institutional infrastructure needed for the development of aquaculture in the IRI is in place within the Shilat framework, with two major exceptions: (1) an extension service and (2) an information and statistics service, which are currently in the planning stage.
The development of the extension service and the preparation of its programme of work should be given top priority at this time if Shilat is to help farmers achieve a significant increase in pond productivity, which is considered by the mission to be a practical near-term objective. At present, extension is almost non-existent, except on an ad-hoc and incidental basis; there is no systematic programme of work nor are there sufficient means of transport and equipment to support any extension effort. Most provincial Shilat staff are not aware of the significant potential for increasing yields from existing ponds, and farmers who are aware of this potential, especially in Khuzestan, do not know how to exploit it nor can they rely on the fisheries staff for this purpose. There is an urgent need for the involvement of extension staff in tests for the adaptation of new technology, the upgrading of existing production methods, the scaling up and field testing of research results from IFRTO, etc., if they are to acquire the necessary practical experience and technical competence needed to deal with the problems of fish farmers. At present, extension staff do not have this opportunity. It is essential that extension agents be more knowledgeable about improved production systems than the farmers they are supposed to help or the credibility of the whole extension system will be destroyed.
The linkage and cooperation between Shilat's research and development infrastructure components (IFRTO) and the Inland Fisheries and Aquaculture Division seem to be inadequate. Research activities of IFRTO are not in line with aquaculture development problems noted by the mission Irrespective of whether this is due to faulty identification of development constraints or to coordination problems, there appears to be an urgent need for the reorientation of research at IFRTO and for better linkage between research and development.
In addition, the current controversy between Shilat and the environmental organization should be resolved to permit the management of lake fisheries and proper monitoring of the stocking programme by Shilat.
The lack of a proper mechanism to collect aquaculture information and statistics represents a serious limitation for planning of future development of aquaculture in Shilat. As the expansion of aquaculture should not endanger the viability of the present industry, a close monitoring of the reaction of markets to increased supply is essential. A section within the Inland Fisheries and Aquaculture Division of Shilat to monitor markets evolution and production statistics would also permit an adequate timing of the expansion of the hectarage for fish culture.
4.3.2 Cooperatives
Shilat's rationale for promoting cooperatives is not clear to the mission. One justification put forward by Shilat staff was that cooperatives would bring about a more synchronized supply of fish to the market and thus better fish prices for the farmers. So far, fish farmers schedule their supply to the market in relation to the landings of captured fish only, but as individuals, not as a group or cooperative. It is doubtful whether the price differences that occur when there is a small or large supply of freshwater justify the costs of promoting cooperatives. Fishermen may join the cooperative for the wrong reason, i.e. to obtain cheaper inputs; they may not wish to coordinate their fish supplies to the market.
The cooperative in Gilan has not taken any initiatives and cannot be assessed at this time, although the lack of any initiative of this cooperative so far does not seem to be a promising foreboding. However, the low, one-time only membership fee and the lack of an additional annual payment according to farm size does not provide the cooperative with adequate funds for routine management, let alone significant initiatives.
The Khuzestan cooperative is also of recent origin, but initial membership fees are more substantial and annual dues are paid by members. This and the cooperative's plans to obtain farm materials not provided through Shilat (pipes, pumps, cement, etc.) at lower prices, through collective action, and to construct a hatchery to provide a local and cheaper source of fish fingerlings, reflects the more entrepreneurial nature of fish farming in this province. Here, farmers seem to have joined forces to resolve common problems and not only to access subsidized supplies from Shilat more easily.
The current research activities of the IFRTO are not in line with the immediate development needs with respect to carps. Exceptions include the recent focus on genetic and disease problems, research for which is in the planning stage. Research aimed at mitigating constraints to the achievement of significantly higher yields from existing ponds, the introduction, testing and adaptation of more advanced and productive carp polyculture systems, as well as more cost effective and easily managed breeding methods, standardization of fertilization practices according to local climates and soil characteristics, etc., are conspicuous by absence.
It is also apparent, in some instances, that the lack of information on advances in aquaculture abroad and of proper techno-economic screening of species prior to the initiation of research projects has led to the duplication of research and unnecessary expenditure (e.g. research on the controlled breeding of dolphin fish and the potential of local mullet species for pond culture).
In view of the gains in production that can be made by improvement of existing carp culture methods and the limited availability of technically competent staff at this time, it would seem prudent to focus a major part of research efforts on this objective in the immediate future. Research priorities should be re-evaluated and amended accordingly. In addition, closer liaison and cooperation should be ensured between the aquaculture research (IFRTO) and development (Inland Fisheries and Aquaculture Division) components of the Shilat.
One of the major constraints to aquaculture development is perhaps the level of technical competence of research and development staff at all levels, from extension technicians to researchers. Few, if any, of the Shilat staff have adequate in-depth training in the specific disciplines of aquaculture at the undergraduate and graduate levels. Extension technicians are not adequately trained to cope with current fish farming problems and can offer little assistance to advanced fish farmers. The practical training they receive at IFRTO training centres is brief and restricted to hatchery methods; there is no practical training in pond management and fish production. There is also a serious shortage of up-to-date information on aquaculture technology and on recent developments relevant to Shilat's interests and to aquaculture developments in general, from trade magazines and extension information for farmers to the results of recent research.
4.6.1 Development Targets
Development targets for the current Five-Year Plan appear to be too ambitious in relation to staff capabilities and the time frame. Provincial staff were found to be hard-pressed to meet these objectives with available resources. Development appears to be moving too quickly, some times without the benefit of initial techno-economic assessment of proposed objectives (e.g. the development of shrimp culture and the plans for initiation of a marine fish hatchery in 1993). This is of special concern since staff lack up-to-date technical-information and are unaware of the results of similar initiatives in the region or under similar conditions.
It would be prudent to review and amend development plans on the basis of techno-economic assessment of objectives and to be more in line with existing capabilities and the results of development experience abroad.
4.6.2 Subsidies on inputs
The evaluation of carp culture economics by the mission, on the basis of information gathered in the field, indicates that carp farming would be profitable without subsidies and would be more profitable if the potential for increasing yields from ponds is achieved. Government funds could be used more effectively in the development of a strong extension service, especially in the northern provinces. However, in view of the tentative nature of the field data, it is recommended that an in-depth study of production economics be carried out and the need for subsidies reassessed on the basis of the results.
4.6.3 Cooperatives
Shilat seems to be encouraging the development of fish farmers' cooperatives by the preferential supply of subsidized supplies and equipment. If this is correct, the justification is not apparent to the mission. Farmers usually seek collective action to resolve common problems, as discussed above in the case in Khuzestan. If the intention is to promote coordination of fish supply to the market to control strong price fluctuations, Shilat needs only to demonstrate that point to farmers and to suggest solutions, including cooperatives. If farmers are convinced, they will take necessary action. The use of subsidies to convince farmers does not address the real issue. An intensive and well planned extension programme would have a greater and more lasting positive effect on carp farming. It seems appropriate, therefore, to reconsider this policy and to phase it out if possible, initially in Khuzestan and more gradually in Gilan where the majority of farms are small and farmers look to the Government for help.
4.6.4 The introduction of exotic fish
Shilat is contemplating the introduction of exotic species with readily available culture technology in order to diversify aquaculture products and to provide farmers with alternative species of higher market value. A major screening parameter for these species is the potential for their culture with locally available inputs.
These are valid objectives, considering the long lead time usually needed to domesticate endemic species for aquaculture. However, the mission is concerned about such introductions in the absence of adequate regulations for their screening according to internationally recommended procedures, particularly in the absence of in-country experience in this area and the potential for the rapid spread of introduced species through the extensive irrigation system and flood plains in some provinces.
Shilat should promote the adoption by the Government of rules and regulations for the introduction of exotic species and should seek the advice of the FAO in this matter before introducing any species. Species contemplated for introduction should be technically and economically evaluated with regard to their utility for aquaculture development before they are screened by regulations governing introductions.
Endemic species should always have priority over exotic species and their evaluation for aquaculture could be carried out in reasonable time if appropriate procedures are adopted, available information is collected from ail sources and research efforts are properly focused for this purpose.
2 US$1 = R 600 instead of US$1 = R 1 400
