Summary
This chapter highlights work from experimental and producer surveys concerning livestock management and productivity in the Borana system. Most of these studies were conducted in average rainfall years under conditions of moderate to high stocking rates of cattle. The primary focus is on cattle which are the most important livestock species to the Boran overall. Ancillary livestock include small ruminants, camels, equines and poultry.
General aspects of cattle husbandry here including maintaining a female-dominated herd structure, dividing up animals into satellite herds to conserve local resources, uncontrolled breeding, milking management of cows, intensive handrearing of nursing calves and aportioning tasks according to gender and age are similar to those observed elsewhere in semi-arid Africa. One unusual feature of Boran, however, is the high degree of water restriction of cattle during dry seasons such that animals may be watered once every three to four days. This practice is permitted probably, in part, by the relatively cool ambient temperatures which help cattle conserve body water otherwise used for thermo-regulation. Restricted watering is a long-held practice of the Boran that has positive attributes in terms of saving human labour, extending grazing radii from water points and increasing water-use efficiency.
Results from trials conducted under conditions indicate that while cattle watered once every three days during dry seasons may lose weight faster than those on daily watering, because restricted watering reduces forage intake, cattle on restricted watering can compensate for it by regaining weight faster during subsequent rainy periods. One significant short-term cost of restricted watering is a reduction in milk production of around 13%. The ability of cattle on restricted watering to regain weight or minimise fall in milk production, is probably constrained to a higher degree under the high stocking rates characteristic of pastoral management compared to those observed under experimental conditions.
A general synthesis of key aspects of productivity and management for mature cattle indicates that: (1) the ratio of females to males in the regional cattle herd is on the order of 71:29; (2) COWS have their first calf at 4 to 4.5 years of age and may produce 6 to 6.5 calves over a reproductive life of 8 to 8.5 years; (3) the average calving interval is 14 to 15 months; (4) milk yield/cow ranges from 680 to 1000 kg for lactations which vary from 7 to 13 months in duration, respectively; (5) the median milk yield/cow is about 850 kg over 320 days (or 2.6 kg/head/day); (6) annual calving rates average around 70%; (7) mature weights for Boran bulls and cows are on the order of 400 and 225 kg, respectively; and (8) mortality rates for animals older than 2 years of age are less than 5% per annum in average rainfall to dry years. These productivity figures appear reasonably good for cattle under traditional pastoral management, and are even comparable to the lower range of productivity values for animals reared under ing and research station conditions in sub-Saharan Africa. This provides some evidence to support contentions that indigenous Boran cattle are relatively productive compared to other African breeds and that the central Borana Plateau is a particularly good environment for cattle production.
Season has a dramatic effect on cattle breeding and milk production. Nearly 70% of calf births occur during the long rains and another 17% during the short rains. Daily milk production per cow roughly doubles in rainy seasons compared to dry seasons, and during dry seasons fewer cows are lactating. Lactation curves are unusual in that they may have a bimodal, rather than unimodal, shape. This probably shows acute seasonal constraints in cow nutrition during some years.
Cattle productivity may also vary with regards to the wealth class of pastoral households. Compared to cows held by wealthier households with a higher ratio of milk cows per person, those held by the poor reportedly have lower calving rates, lower milk production, lower absolute milk offtake for human consumption, lower milk intake for calves and higher rates of calf mortality. These patterns may be largely attributable to a higher milking intensity practiced in poorer households.
Productivity may also be influenced by grade of cow. The Boran recognise three classes of milk cows (high, intermediate and low producers) and these vary substantially in terms of daily yields with high producers yielding over 50% more milk than low producers. Household surveys suggest that despite their greater milk production, compared to lower producers high producers may have a longer calving interval. Costs of higher milk yield may thus be related to the extent to which higher-producing cows must mine body reserves in support of lactation, which may then compromise reproduction. Different productivity classes of cows may also vary in terms of their vulnerability to resource restriction during dry years and drought. Informants reported that high producers are among the first to perish during difficult circumstances. Another important factor that affects milk production are ticks. A survey of 560 milk cows indicated that 13% of teats were closed as a result of tick-induced damage. This implies that an average eight-cow household may need one extra cow simply to offset this loss in milk production capacity.
Compared to other aspects of cattle calf growth rates appear to be low. Birth weights average 18 kg and are affected by season of parturition. Field studies that quantified growth from birth to 210 days of age indicate that average daily gains for nursing calves are variable but on the order of 136 g/head/day, typically less than 1% of live weight. Growth is probably substantially influenced by competition with humans for milk as milk offtake for people averages 30 to 40% of total yields in general. At 250 days of age a calf which consumes 195 kg of the milk yield (35% of production) may weigh around 60 kg which is only 45% of the live weight of 132 kg projected if the calf were to have all the milk.
Calf mortality rates appear high and similar to that in other pastoral systems in Africa. Producer surveys suggest mortality rates and causes vary according to interactions between the wealth of pastoral households and the type of rainfall year. Averaged over all years, wealthy, intermediate and poor households reported calf mortality rates of 24%, 16% and 30%, respectively. It has been postulated that the high mortality rates for calves of the wealthy are primarily caused by disease-related factors that result from a reduced management input per calf. The higher mortality rates for calves held by the poor are probably more related to nutritional stress arising from competition with people for milk. Across all households in a modal rainfall year, calf mortality may average 22 to 25%, with roughly half of the deaths primarily due to poor nutrition and the other half caused by health complications such as calf scours, black leg, pasteurolosis and foot-and-mouth disease. For a dry year mortality rates are similar but two-thirds of losses being directly attributable to nutrition. In a drought year 70 to 90% of the calf crop may be lost, all primarily due to poor nutrition.
Calf management is typically performed by married women and the pattern of management changes depending on the season of birth of the calf. Calves born during the dry seasons or short rains usually receive more intensive care reflecting the greater scarcity of resources and higher competition with people for milk. Management by women includes gathering cut-and-carry forage and hauling water for relatively immobile calves which are kept in or near the family hut.
More limited observations on ancillary livestock suggest that productivity and management practices in Borana for goats, sheep and camels are similar to those found elsewhere in semi-arid Africa. Exceptions may include the fact that sheep are apparently rarely milked in average rainfall years and breeding among small ruminants being uncontrolled. Camels serve various purposes depending on ethnic group; the minority Gabra rely on camels mostly for milk while the Boran use them more for hauling goods and occasionally for pulling ploughs. In contrast to cattle disease appears to be a more pervasive constraint for the production of small ruminants and camels. This may be a consequence of the relatively moist conditions in which these species are commonly held, in upper semi-arid and subhumid locations. Equines are often observed on the Borana Plateau but occur at low population densities. Donkeys are used to haul goods while mules and horses are ridden by men. Little is known concerning the importance of chickens to Borana households even though they can be frequently seen in encampments. It is thought that chickens may be an increasingly important market item for Borana households in pert-urban locations.
