References
On-farm trials are considered an integral part of the farming systems research approach to technological design and testing. This is because, to cite the reasons commonly given in literature (Harrington, 1980; Stroud, 1985; Gilbert et al, 1980; Norman and Collinson, 1985), they have:
· diagnostic functionInsights gained during the on-farm trial phase should be confirmed and refined, and further contact with the farmer should broaden knowledge about the system. Our knowledge about resource interactions, the manner in which decisions are made and the role of management at the household level should therefore improve.
· prescriptive function
This function indicates pathways for improvement. During on-farm trials, farmers are involved in technology identification, design and evaluation. This should improve the chances of adoption within each selected target group, if representative participant farmers are chosen.
· adaptive function
"Solutions" developed on-station can be tested and adapted on-farm to determine their relevance to a particular situation. The relevance of technologies used elsewhere (e.g. in other similar agricultural production systems) can also be examined.
The success of any on-farm trial project will depend on a number of factors. In particular, there will be a need for the systems research team to:
· review continually the approach used and to make an honest assessment of the problems likely to be confronted· be practical in the approach adopted
Attempts to be excessively systematic in the design of an 'ideal' farming system which has little hope of adoption should be avoided (Dillon and Anderson, 1984). Emphasis will normally be given to the adaptation of existing technologies, not to the design of new ones. When new technologies need to be designed, trials should normally be conducted on-station, not on-farm. There may also be circumstances in which it is more practical to conduct research on-station, rather than by on-farm trials (Part A of Module 2, Section 2).
· maintain close contact with farmers and incorporate their views at every stage of the process
This principle is repeatedly stated in the literature (e.g. Tripp, n.d.; Bernsten et al, 1984; Collinson, 1984; Conway, 1984). Agreements between farmers and the research team about management obligations should be clearly defined at the outset.
· maintain close contact with on-station researchers and know when to utilise station facilities and other sources of available expertise (e.g. extension staff)
The participation of, and communication with, research institutions and extension agents must be enhanced if the interest in the research conducted and the recommendations made is to be sustained (Butler, 1984).
· maintain a multi-disciplinary approach to research throughout the process (Gilbert et al, 1980).
These principles are generally applicable to crop and livestock on-farm trials. There are, however, factors peculiar to livestock on-farm trials which can alter the approach adopted. These factors need to be properly understood if useful results are to be achieved.
For instance, attempts to design livestock on-farm trials for the purposes of statistical analysis will often be fraught with problems because of the difficulty of obtaining large enough samples, or because adequate supervision cannot be assured. In such circumstances, objectives may need to be modified and alternative courses of action considered.
The problems commonly confronted and the manner in which they can be overcome are discussed in this section of the manual. Where appropriate, reference is made to cropping systems literature on the topic, but unnecessary repetition of what has already been written is avoided. The reader is, however, encouraged to use the support material listed. References such as Stroud (1985), CIMMYT (1986), Mutsaers et al (1986) and Steiner (1987) are widely available and particularly useful.
Section 2 comprises three modules:
Module 1, Definitions, problems and initial considerations in planning livestock on-farm trialsModule 2, Design, implementation, monitoring and evaluation of livestock on-farm trials, and
Module 3, Analysing data from livestock on-farm trials
The principles given in these modules can be applied to any kind of livestock on-farm trial. Considerations specific to feed and animal health on-farm trials are discussed in the appendices to Module 2 (Section 2).
Bernsten R H, Fitzhugh H A and Knipsheer H C. 1984. Livestock in farming systems research. In: Flora C B (ed), Animals in the farming system. Proceedings of Kansas State University's 1983 Farming Systems Research Symposium, Manhattan, Kansas, 31 October - 2 November 1983. Farming Systems Research Paper Series 6, Kansas State University, Manhattan, Kansas, USA. pp. 64-109.
Butler L M. 1984. Putting farming systems research data collection in perspective: Practicalities and realities. In: Flora C B (ed), Animals in the farming system. Proceedings of Kansas State University's 1983 Farming Systems Research Symposium, Manhattan, Kansas, 31 October - 2 November 1983. Farming Systems Research Paper Series 6, Kansas State University, Manhattan, Kansas, USA. pp. 525-555.
CIMMYT (Centro Internacional de Mejoramiento de Maiz y Trigo). 1986. Teaching notes on on-farm experimentation: Evaluation of on-farm trials. Statistical evaluation and interpretation. CIMMYT Occasional Paper 12, Eastern African Economics Programme, CIMMYT, Nairobi, Kenya.
Collinson M P. 1984. Eastern African farming systems and some indications of research priorities. In: Ryan J G and Mertin J V (eds), Major agricultural problems and research priorities in the Eastern-Africa region. Proceedings of the Eastern Africa - ACIAR Consultation on Agricultural Research, Nairobi, Kenya, 19-22 July 1983. National Council for Science and Technology, Kenya, and Australian Centre for International Agricultural Research (ACIAR), Canberra, Australia. pp. 187-206.
Conway G. 1984. Rural research conflicts in the UK and the Third World: Issues for research policy papers. In: Science, technology and public policy 6. Imperial College of Science and Technology, London, UK.
Dillon J L and Anderson J R. 1984. Concept and practice of farming systems research. In: Ryan J G and Mertin J V (eds), Major agricultural problems and research priorities in the Eastern-Africa region. Proceedings of the Eastern Africa - ACIAR Consultation on Agricultural Research, Nairobi, Kenya, 19-22 July 1983. National Council for Science and Technology, Kenya, and Australian Centre for International Agricultural Research (ACIAR), Canberra, Australia. pp. 171-186.
Gilbert E H. Norman D W and Winch F E. 1980. Farming systems research: A critical appraisal. MSU Rural Development Paper 6, Department of Agricultural Economics, Michigan State University, East Lansing, Michigan, USA. 135 pp.
Harrington L.??? 1980. Methodological issues facing social scientists in on-farm/farming systems research. CIMMYT Working Paper. Economics Program, CIMMYT (Centro Internacional de Mejoramiento de Maiz y Trigo), Mexico, Mexico. 37 pp.
Mutsaers H J W. Fisher N M, Vogel W O and Palada M C. 1986. A field guide for on-farm research. IITA (International Institute of Tropical Agriculture), Ibadan, Nigeria. 197 pp.
Norman D and Collinson M. 1985. Farming systems research in theory and practice. In: Remenyi J V (ed), Agricultural systems research for developing countries. Proceedings of an international workshop held at Hawkesbury Agricultural College, Richmond, New South Wales, Australia, 12-15 May 1985. ACIAR Proceedings 11. ACIAR (Australian Centre for International Agricultural Research), Canberra, Australia. pp. 16-30.
Steiner K G. 1987. On-farm experimentation handbook for rural development projects: Guidelines for the development of ecological and socio-economic sound extension messages for small farmers. Special Publication 203, GTZ (Deutsche Gesellschaft fur Technische Zusammenarbeit), Eschborn, Federal Republic of Germany. 307 pp.
Stroud A. 1985. On-farm experimentation: Concepts and principles. An occasional series of papers and notes on methodologies and procedures useful in farming systems research and in the economic interpretation of agricultural experiments. Number 11: Teaching notes. Eastern African Economics Programme, CIMMYT (Centro Internacional de Mejoramiento de Maiz y Trigo), Nairobi, Kenya. 94 pp.
Tripp R. n.d. Data collection, site selection and farmer participation in on-farm experimentation. Working Paper 82/1, CIMMYT Economics Program, CIMMYT (Centro Internacional de Mejoramiento de Maiz y Trigo), Mexico, Mexico. 29 pp. + 10 appendices.
