Appendix 1. Case studies - Mixed farming systems

Key to the format (absence of an entry indicates no information available in the sources used)

Number	Head	Code
1		Case study number(s)
2		Source(s)
	DESCRIPTORS
3		Country, locality
4		Rainfall, environmental unit, and strata
5		Ethnic group(s)
6		Critical ecological indicators
7		Human population, density, growth
8		Livestock population, density, growth
	RESOURCE ACCESS
9		Livestock/holding - types, numbers
10		Livestock ownership determinants
11		Access rights - grazing
12		Access rights - farmland
	ECONOMIC INTEGRATION
13		Contribution to subsistence
14		Contribution to income
15		Investment value
16		Exchange contracts
	SYSTEM INTEGRATION (see below)
17		Residues 0-3
18		Fodder trees 0-3
19		Fodder production 0-3
20		Manure 0-3
21		Traction 0-3
22		Transport 0-3
23		Cattle movements 0-3
24		SR movements 0-3
	RECENT TRENDS, ECONOMIC
25		Settlements
26		Land supply -
27		Specialisation, diversification
28		Market impact, terms of trade
	RECENT TRENDS, ENVIRONMENTAL
29		Intensity rating 0-3 (see below)
30		New systems of resource use
31		Degradation, sustainability
32		Effects of drought

Integration Scores

17	1	Residues	0	not used for fodder
			1	open access grazing of stover + stubble
			2	privatised stover (storage) + 0A stubble
			3	enclosure: privatised stover + stubble
18	2	Fodder Trees	0	none on farmland
			1	volunteers protected, 0A browsing
			2	plantings + protection, 0A browsing
			3	privatised, browsed, cut and carried
19	3	Fodder production	0	none
			1	cut and carried from natural vegetation
			2	cut and carried, bought and sold
			3	grown on farm, cut & carried, bought & sold
20	4	Manure	0	not used for fertilisation
			1	'farm' system (field grazing, night paddocking)
			2	dry pen system + carrying + farm system
			3	composting + carrying + farm system
21	5	Traction	0	no animal draft power used
			1	draft animals owned or rented by minority
			2	draft animals owned or rented by majority
			3	draft animals owned by majority
22	6	Transport	0	no transport available
			1	owned or rented by minority
			2	owned or rented by majority
			3	owned by majority
23	7	Cattle movements	0	off farm for whole year
			1	outside community area all year, but off farm for part of year
			2	in community areas all year, but off farm for part of year
			3	on farm all year
24	8	SR movements	0	off farm all year
			1	outside community area for part of year
			2	in community area all year, but off farm for part of year
			3	on farm all year

29 Intensity Rating

Grazing	0	no farming except by livestock specialists migrant herds
Enclave farming	1	low cultivated percentage
		low degree of integration
		common access grazing extensive
		many livestock specialists
		migrant herds visiting
		little nutrient cycling
		some nutrient transfer
		long fallows (main fertility strategy) no trees on arable
Enclave grazing	2	high cultivated percentage >20
		high degree of integration
		common access grazing restricted
		some livestock specialists
		transhumance for cattle
		nutrient cycling (residues - manure)
		nutrient transfer (paddocking)
		short fallows - insufficient to maintain arable fertility
		some trees on arable
Intensive farming	3	very high cultivated percentage >70
		highest degree of integration
		common access grazing limited to residual
		marginal or flooded land
		livestock owned by farmers
		transhumance or stall feeding for cattle
		intensive nutrient cycling (residues manure)
		very short fallows, or none
		trees important on arable

1	1
2	Toulmin (ms.nd); Toulmin 1983
3	Mali: Segou region, N of Niger (Kale Village)
4	4-500mm (SAZ U,D) EU
5	Bambara, Fulani, Maures
6	Flat, old dunes, depth to iron pan variable
7	7/km2
8	20-30% reduction in rainfall after 1970
9	Livestock/hh:21 cattle, 24 SR, 1.6 donkeys, 0.6 horses
10	Bambara-farmers with cattle (male owned) and SR (male or female owned) Fulani - herders with farms Maure/Fulani herder specialists (seasonal visitors)
11	Open access to grazing land
12	Bambara try to stop Fulani settling and digging wells
13	Milk
14	Milk sales generate income for marriage and other expenses
15	Groundnut profits invested in cattle, 1950s-1960s, which are sold for cash or contingencies. Their value as marketable assets is stressed.
16	Bambara entrust livestock to Fulani (wet) Bambara pay grain, cash, food or allow access to private wells in exchange for field coralling. Bambara pay hired herders millet and milk; do not herd their own cattle. Fulani hire labour for weeding.
17	1 or 2
18
19
20	2
21	2 or 3
22	2 or 3
23	1
24	2
25	In-migration and settlement dispersal.
26	Increasing arable, decreasing grazing; Bambara attempt to limit strangers' access to arable.
27	'Homogenisation' of Fulani and Bambara traditional specializations, and economic strategies. Diversification of income sources; fattening of sheep/goats by 'retired' elderly; migratory labour especially in smaller households.
28	Strong market for livestock sales.
29	1 - system depends on abundant supply of arable and long fallows (30 years or more) of bush fields.
30	(1) increase in private wells - ownership of a well generates enough manure, from the equivalent of 15 cattle year-round (owned or visiting) to fertilize 3ha (2) Decline of groundnut and of individual forms of production (3) Use of plough for both weeding and ridging (4) Increase in manured area. (5) Increase in livestock numbers.
31	Decline of perennial grasses; tree mortality.
32	Increasing preference for short-cycle millet. Movement of herders into farming.

1	2
2	Mortimore, 1990, Hendy, 1977
3	Nigeria: Kano Close-Settled Zone
4	813 mm: (SAZ, UM)
5	Hausa (80%); Fulani (20%)
6	Aeolian sands cover 90% surface, 90-91% sand. Sandy-loams in fadama depressions. Almost all natural vegetation eliminated. 26% reduction in August rainfall, 1931-60/1966-85
7	4-500/km2 at 2-3%(?)
8	n.a.
9	Cattle 0.6/farm unit, sheep 5.3, goats 8.1, donkeys 0.8, fowls 18
10	Cattle owned by sedentary Fulani, SR by all households. Percent of farm units owning cattle, 9; sheep, 72; goats 93; donkeys 61; hens 89.
11	Open access to residual bush
12	Inheritance, purchase, borrowing, renting. Alienation to outsiders is not favoured
13	Milk, meat (special occasions)
14	Milk sales; manure may be sold; SR breeding for sale
15	Investment value of all livestock stressed; SR more easily acquired or sold to meet cash needs
16	Cattle owners entrust to neighbours for wet season transhumance. Coralling contracts now rare.
17	2
18	3
19	2
20	2
21	1
22	2
23	1
24	2
25	Little migration. Dispersed households reorganised into compact villages.
26	Extreme scarcity; use of marginal sites.
27	Diversification highly developed into off farm occupations and labour/trading circulation (dry season) and urban wage employment.
28	Highly developed cash economy through formal and informal market structures.
29	3
30	(1) Decline of groundnuts since 1975; (2) partial substitution of cowpeas (including improved); (3) increased use of inorganic fertilizers; (4) increased grain sales; (5) increased use of plough
31	Stable soil chemical and physical properties 1977-90 (average); stable and regenerating numbers/densities of farm trees
32	Preference for short season millet over sorghum in some areas; household economic diversification.

1	3
2	Mortimore, 1989
3	Nigeria, NE Kano, NW Borno
4	430 mm (SAZ UD)
5	Manga (80%), Hausa (15%) Fulani (5%)
6	Aeolian dune sands and depressions. 25% reduction in rainfall, 1942-60/1970-85:
7	100-150/km2 at 2-3%(?)
8	n.a.
9	Fulani herds: cattle 7, SR 10 (1972); 6 and 7 (1974). Hausa herds: cattle 3, SR 7 (1972); 1 and 3 (1974)
10	Livestock specialists (Fulani) own more, esp. cattle. Cattle ownership associated with wealth. Women own SR.
11	Common access to administratively reserved grazing areas, but customary use by resident Fulani. Fodder may be privatised and sold.
12	Manga - inheritance mainly; also reallocation of unused plots. Hausa (in-migrants) - allocation by Manga head. Fulani enclosure of grazing land.
13	Milk, meat (special occasions)
14	Milk-grain exchanges; milk sales; sale of bred stock; hire of transport animals.
15	Animals highly valued as investments; sale for cash needs, contingencies. SR readily sold when necessary.
16	Entrustment rare because Manga cattle ownership much reduced; night coralling in exchange for grain or money uncommon; hired herders uncommon.
17	1
18	1
19	2
20	2 (infield)
21	1
22	1
23	1
24	2
25	In-migrants start new villages or attachments to existing ones.
26	Cultivated percentage increased from 28% in 1950 to 39% in 1981.
27	Intensified involvement of Manga in labour circulation and trading animals (Lagos); increasing diversity of alternative income opportunities.
28	Fluctuating crop: livestock ToT influenced by rainfall and other external factors; decline of groundnut sales since 1975 and attempts to find marketable substitutes.
29	2
30	Ploughs or labour saving hoe (ashasha) used to extend cultivated area per in/hold.
31	Shortage of fallow land. Yield trends cannot be controlled for rainfall effects. Heavy stocking on grazing areas.
32	Increased nomadic herds from farther north; intensified labour circulation and off-farm income seeking; experimentation with shor season crops.

1	4
2	Gulbrandsen, 1980; Lawry 1983; Abel et al, 1987; Flint, 1986.
3	Botswana, Ngwaketse District, Kanye area (Gulbrandsen) and Pelotshetla lands area (Abel et al.)
4	516 mm (SAZ, ST, D)
5	Tswana
6	Clays, clay loams (seloko). Sandy soils (mothlaba)
7	n.a.
8	n.a.
9	Cattle and donkeys. 10-12 cattle are needed to support a draft team of 6; 21-30 to support 6 oxen. 70% farms hold cattle; 55% own cattle; 5TLU/head, highest in Africa (Botswana data)
10	Age: in in/holds headed by men >50 yrs, 87% have >11 cattle; in those <50 years, 74% have '10. Most female headed households have <10. Wealth: ave. income of owners of >45 cattle is 3x that of owners of <16.
11	Communal, except where privatised under the provisions of the TGLP.
12	Communal, that is grazing land can be freely converted.
13	Milk (but primary purpose of keeping cattle is for draft).
14	Via draft: milk, meat and in-kind products represent >50% value of small herds esp. SR. Cash sales 45% income of large herds, esp. cattle.
15	Cattle are valued as investments because of breeding capability, but sales avoided to protect the ploughteam, unless surplus.
16	Herd boys take herds to cattle posts during the farming season. Later h/h management agreements.
17	2(?)
18	0(?)
19	1
20	1
21	3
22	3
23	2
24	2(?)
25
26	Grazing area declining as arable expands (3% doubling yearly), communal grazing reduced by private grazing enclosures; new grazing areas opened up by private boreholes.
27	Labour circulation (S African mines) funds livestock investments; very few h/h depend exclusively on agro-pastoralism - 75% have at least 1 wage employee.
28	Economic returns of farming low; food supply is dominant objective; Cattle offtake is 8% (traditional sector).
29	1 or 2
30	Privatised boreholes and grazing enclosures.
31	'Overgrazing' (change of species and reduced plant density) is localised (boreholes) and not generally admitted by farmers. But stocking rate in Botswana CAs is 4.2 ha/LSU (recommended rate 12
32	Intensifies dependence on non-agricultural incomes.

1	5
2	Gregoire, 1980; Gregoire & Raynaut, 1980; Boulier and Jouve, 1988: Raynaut, 1977:
3	Niger, Maradi area.
4	<400 mm (SAZ, U,D)
5	Hausa (80%); Fulani (20%)
6	Ferruginous tropical sands on old dunes (jigawa), 93% sand. Ferruginous tropical compact soils (geza), 89% sand. Hydromorphic (fadama), 78% sand. Reduced rainfall in last 20 years.
7	1642 at 28/km2 (1977)
8	n.a.
9	per unit 8.0 goats, 2.5 sheep, 0.4 cattle, 0.25 horses/donkeys, 0.2 camels; l goat/person.
10	Size of holding - cattle restricted to >3 ha. Women own 70% goats 51% sheep 35% cattle. LUs: Fulani own 64% cattle, Hausa 54% sheep, 22% goats.
11	Common or open access to grazing, fallows, fields.
12	Inheritance, allocation, purchase, loan, hiring (recent)
13	Milk, meat (special occasions)
14	17% unit heads, monetary income from pastoralism/animal products, much higher for specialists; 42% women's' income.
15	Capitalisation in small livestock a vital form of saving and revenue generation.
16	Manuring contracts have nearly disappeared. Entrustment also regressing (Fulanis taking up farming).
17	Transitional, 1-2
18	1 or 2
19	2(?)
20	2
21	1 (33%)
22	2(?)
23	1 or 2
24	2
25
26	(1) Cultivated area grows at 4%/yr (1957-75)
	(2) Cultivated area grows on north and south at 2.4 and 2.5%/yr (1960-68) increasing to 6.9 and 3.1% (1968-70) and falling to 3.4 and 3.1 (1979-85)
27	Migration is generally temporary. Local alternative income sources are more important.
28	1970 1 cow = 15 bags millet
	1976 1 cow = 25 bags millet
29	2
30	Extensification of farming system, 1968-79 (see 26)
31	Loss of equilibrium between cultivation and grazing (nutrient transfer). Shortening fallows.
32	Loss of livestock contributing to shortage of manure.

1	6
2	Holtzman, 1987; Hallaire, 1971
3	Cameroun, Mokolo area - Mandara Mts.
4	6-1100 mm (SAZ, U,M)
5	Mafa (Mandara)
6	Decomposed granite severely eroded, coarse gravel soils, steep slopes; Terrace management of steep slopes
7	547,748 in Region at >200/km2 (1976)
8	(Cattle) 68/km2 in region
9	Ave. 1.1 bulls/household, stall feeding system over 26 months (ave)
10
11
12
13	One third (39%, 1977-81) of bulls slaughtered are used for festivals/subsistence (extended family)
14	Two thirds (61% 1977-81) of fattened bulls are sold wholly or partly, paying taxes, financing purchases
15	Beef sales revenue invested in more animals.
16	Fulani herders may be paid in grain, legumes or food for grazing residues. Herding by children (dry season)
17	2
18
19	2
20	2
21	0 or 1
22	1
23	2 (stall fed 7 months)
24
25
26	Scarce
27	Beer brewing, firewood collection, grass collection/storage, labouring locally or in towns
28	Increasing monetization even in remote villages. Cattle prices increased at 9%/yr, 1972-80.
29	3
30
31
32	Withdrawal of cattle from the market for herd reconstitution.

1	7
2	Blench, 1987
3	Sudan, Gezira
4	(AZ)
5	Arab, Fulani (Fellata)
6	Black cotton soils, Irrigation scheme
8	Feb 1986 and April 1986/km2
		17	23	cattle
		62	80	small ruminants
		19	19	donkeys
9	4,2 cattle, 12.7 SR and 1.3 donkeys/household with important differences between Gezira and Managil, tenants and non-tenants
10	Tenants have larger holdings of livestock; but 40% owned by sharecroppers/labourers especially SR.
11	Open access off-scheme, restricted on-scheme
12	Scheme holdings (irrigated) operated by tenants; share croppers.
13	Milk, meat, domestic transport
14	Sale of milk, cheese, meat, transport animals (donkeys) and fattened sheep.
15
16	Hired herders Herding contracts (with nomads?) especially for smaller livestock owners
17	2
18
19	3 (lubia) dropped in 1970s; now 2 (?)
20	2(?)
21	1 or 2
22	1 or 2
23	0 or 1 (off scheme for most of the year)
24	1 or 2 (?)
25	Ethnic diversity and recent influx of labourers and share croppers from W. Sudan.
26	Restricted by irrigation availability.
27	Cheese making, dairy, sheep fattening, donkey breeding specialisations.
28	ToT continue to favour livestock owners rather than cotton producers. Dairy marketing efficient; demand exceeds supply.
29	3 (irrigated)
30	Increasing use of off-scheme or distant grazings by scheme livestock owners.
31	Deforestation due to charcoal making in areas S of scheme has reduced tsetse risk.
32	Transfer of cattle from nomads to wealthy scheme residents 40%-60% losses in 1980s.

1	8
2	Morton 1988
3	Sudan, Kassala Province, N & S of Gedaref
4	2-600 mm (SAZ, U,D)
5	Lahawin
6	Cracking days: alluvial (jerif) along rivers Atbara, Setit Rivers in incised valleys
7	8-9000 Lahawin W bank of Atbara
8	n.a.
9	Camels cattle SR
10
11	Collective rights to dry season grazings near rivers; open access to wet season grazings between rivers
12	Some Lahawin are tenants on New Halfa irrigation scheme
	Family customary rights to arable; some registered holdings
13	Milk is reserved for herds and domestic consumption. skins, etc.
14	Regular sales to finance food purchases, e.g. 25-30 sheep, 3-4 camels/yr/family
15	Many large herds; wealthy remain in pastoralism; camels most highly valued for investment
16	Deals between units of extended family to share herding (esp. wet season transhumance) and farming responsibilities. Merchants and scheme farmers hire herders.
17	2
18
19	0 or 1(?)
20	1 (?)
21	1 or 2 (?)
22	3
23	1 (transhumance)
24	1 or 2(?)
25	Settlement (1950s) to claim dry season lands
	Settlement (1980s) owing to loss of stock
26	Wet season grazing areas are liable to expropriation (mechanised farming). Scarcity of dry season lands, appropriation by farmers.
27	Wage labour on mechanised farms
28	Residues marketed
	Monetization associated with scheme
29	1
30	Expanding mechanised farms Irrigation scheme (mechanised).
	Nomad settlement
31	Soil erosion and exhaustion on (mechanised farms, cultivation north of the legal limit. Woodcutting. Reservoir siltation. Banditry in border area discourages grazing.
32	Loss of stock <100%, suspension of transhumance, settlement.

1	9
2	Boulier and Jouve, 1988: Lericollais, 1972
3	Senegal, Fatick area
4	570 mm (SAZ, U,M)
5	Serer
6	Ferruginous tropical sand (dior) 90% sand
	Hydromorphic sandy loam (dek) 89% sand 35% reduced rainfall 1930-65/1966-82
7	85/km2
8	80 UBT/km2
9	12 UBT/herd (sedentary farmers, breeders)
10	66% land holdings have no cattle; number increases with size of holding
11
12	Land loans increasing - 25% cultivated area, 40% holdings
13
14	Cattle fattening second to farming (groundnuts) as source of income
15	Capitalization and saving in livestock
16	No contracts (no nomads or semi-nomads)
17	1
18
19	0 or 1(?)
20	2
21	2
22	1 or 2(?)
23	2 (enclosed fallows in wet)
24	2
25
26	Cultivated area increasing; decline in grazing
27	50% holdings affected by migration; earnings also from local off farm activities
28
29	2
30	Increasing transhumance because of forage shortage; emergence of smaller production/consumption groups
1	Fertility decline owing to extension of cultivated area and reduction in manure supply caused by increase in transhumance - 'extensification'
32

1	10
2	Boulier and Jouve 1988: Bradley et al 1977
3	Mauritania, Guidimaka (south)
4	460 mm (SAZ, U. M/D)
5	Soninke (55%) Maures (25%) Fulani (15%)
6	Aeolian sands (signal 94% sand sand-loam, loam-sand (niarwalle) 77% sand hydromorphic (katamagne) 45% sand 29% reduced rainfall 1930-65/1966-82
7	10 km2
8	10 UBT/km2
9	12 UBT/herd, sedentary
28	UBT/herd, semi-nomadic
10	Soninke, Toucouleur sedentary
	Fulani, Maure semi nomadic, nomadic
11
12
13	milk, meat
14	milk-grain exchanges between farmers and pastoralists, Livestock second source of monetary income after migration
15	Investment value - capitalisation and saving
16	Entrustment of cultivators' animals to pastoralists
	Manure contracts less important
17	1 or 2
18
19	0 or 1(?)
20	1
21	0
22	1(?)
23	1
24	2(?)
25	Since 1970 'exode' includes temporary, long term and permanent
26	Cultivated area reduced in response to the crisis of the system
27	Earnings from labour migration supplement food supply, pay for labour and other agricultural activities - principle source of monetary income
28
29	1
30
31	Overstocking causing degradation of pasture. Wind and water erosion follows the extension of the cultivated area, and capping
32	Loss of tree cover

1	12
2	Boulier and Jouve 1988: Marchal 1983
3	Burkina Faso, Yatenga, Ouahigouya area
4	570 mm (SAZ, U,M.)
5	Mossi (70%) Kurumba (20%), Fulani (20%)
6	Gravels and sands (zenka, binsiri) 75, 74% sand Sandy-clay, sand loam (dagare, kissogho)? Loamy clay (baogo) 51% sand 21% reduced rainfall 1950-65/1966-82
7	45/km2
8	20 UBT/km2
9	4 UBT/herd sedentary
17	ditto semi nomads
10	Mossi own fewer cattle, more sheep, many more goats and horses than Fulani 35% holdings have no cattle
11
12
13
14	Livestock second after migration ('exode') as source of monetary income
15	Livestock valued for capitalization and saving; 'primordial' role in Fulani economies
16	Entrustment contracts graded important. Manuring contracts less important, and declining
17	1 or 2 (increasing)
18
19	0 or 1?()
20	1, declining
21	1
22	1(?)
23	1
24	2(?)
25
26	Fallows diminishing; recent appearance of land loans; appropriation of land/residues by farmers, retreat of pastoralists to interstices.
27	20% of the population involved in migration, the most important source of monetary income, followed by 'local activities' and livestock
28
29	2
30	Decline of ploughing; 'extensification'
31	Extensification - less manure owing to separation of farming (sedentary) from livestock (semi nomadic) systems
32	Sale of plough stock and tools Shorter rainy season reduces time available for cultivation, decline in ploughing

1	13
2	Boulier & Jouve, 1988
3	Burkina Faso, Oudalan (NE) Dori area
4	470 (SAZ, U,D)
5	Tuareg (50%), Fulani (25%), Songhai (15%). Rimaibe (10%) - last two sedentary
6	Dune sands, 90% sand
	Piedmont sands, 92% sand
	Sandy loams in depressions (bas-fonds) 63% sand 16% reduced rainfall 1930-65/1966-82
7	7/km2
8	20 UBT/km2
9	8 UBT/herd (sedentary)
	35 UBT/herd (semi-nomadic)
10
11	Open access to residues: Common access to village pastures
12
13	Milk very important
14	Livestock activity the most important source of revenue; financing chronic food grain deficits
15	Capitalisation, saving less important than current revenue
16	Manure contracts very important: Entrustment contracts important
17	1, 2 increasing
18
19
20	1
21	0
22	1?
23	1
24	2?
25
26	Pasture scarcity owing to arable expansion
27	Cash crops, migration and local activities all unimportant as sources of revenue
28
29	2?
30
31	Degraded tree and shrub cover, overstocking near water in dry season
32	Sales of livestock

1	15
2	Wagenaar et al, 1986
3	Mali, Diafarabe District, Niger Delta SW
4	2-600 mm (SAT, U,D,)
5	Jafaraji
6	Inland Niger Delta
7	n.a.
8	n.a.
9	Cattle
10
11
12
13	Milk
14	Milk sales; exchanged for rice
15	Breeding
16	Herding contracts between families in exchange for milk
17	1?
18	0 or 1
19	0 or 1 (Important bourgou delta grazings)
20	1?
21	1 or 2
22	1 or 2
23	1 and 2 (divided herds)
24	2?
25
26
27
28
29
30
31
32

1	19
2	Roth et al 1987
3	Somalia, S. Shalambood Irrign. Scheme on R. Shebelle
4	(AZ/SAZ, B,D)
5	Somali
6	Irrigation
7	n.a.
8	n.a.
9	Cattle, sheep, goats, camels, donkeys; 8.4 animals/household (3.2 small owners, 15.3 large owners)
10	34% households own livestock; women may own all but camels and donkeys
11	Grazing at house, on canals, around scheme
12	Irrigated farms on scheme, but few have registered holdings; insecurity
13	Milk, meat
14	Hides and leather products sold
15
16
17	1 or 2
18
19
20	0 usually (manure used for house building)
21
22	1 or 2
23	l (large owners) 2 (small owners)
24	2(?)
25	New Settlements on scheme
26	Irrigated land scarce and sought after (land grabbing); off-scheme grazing essential for larger owners (>6 animals)
27
28
29	3
30	Irrigation and intensified use of off-scheme grazings by farmers
31
32

1	21
2	Holt, 1986 (Behnke and Kerven, 1964): Hoben et al, 1983
3	Somalia, central rangelands (and Bay region)
4	250-300 mm (SAZ/AZ, B,D)
5	Somali
6	Stabilised sand dunes over limestone White plateau (inland) soils Rainfall is relatively reliable
7	n.a.
8	n.a.
9	Goats (80/hh) sheep (32) camels (13) cattle (10) poultry'
10	70-80% pastoralists own farms; 90-95% farmers own livestock. Women own sheep, goats, poultry
11	Common access to rangeland for all Somalis unless enclosed
12	Customary rights by enclosure; now State 50 yr leases for up to 60 ha; subject to cultivation or development within 2 years. Sales, leases, barter
13	Milk, meat
14	Increasing sales of livestock; crop sales may finance animal purchases; milk sales to buy grain
15	Livestock provide wealth creation opportunities e.g. to merchants, cattle and camels more important as investments than for milk
16	Residue grazing contracts with distant kin or nomads
17	3
18	2,3
19	3
20	1 (green manure used in Bay Region)
21	1 or 2
22	3
23	2
24	2
25	Movement of agropastoralists to new borehole sites and rangeland enclosures
26	Land bought, leased, bartered; increasing in value; shortage of open grazing; state's abolition of the clan opens registered acquisition to outsiders
27	Crop sales increasing, livestock sales; labour migration (incl. overseas) crafts and services (Bay Region)
28	Increasing commercialisation. Crop production is subsistence orientated and may reduce market involvement in livestock (Bay Region). Improvement of T of T for livestock producers 1970-78 except after drought.
29	2?
30	Enclosures of grazing as well as farmland (with fallows) increasing communal grazing land is rapidly becoming private mixed farms
31	Old established integrated agro-pastoralism. Coastal dunes reactivated by heavy grazing and cultivation; village dune formations; loss of plant cover; breakdown of soil structure and loss of topsoil after 2 years cultivation. Sowing and protection of fodder trees on fallows. Windbreaks. Long established, stable and ecologically well adapted system; overstocking/degradation thesis is not supported well by field evidence (Hoben et al) Field bunding, clean weeding to conserve moisture
32	Increased livestock sales; intensified soil exposure.

1	22
2	Neunhauser, et al, 1983
3	Kenya, Machakos District -
4	4-700 mm, 300 in long rains (SAZ, B, D/M)
5	Akamba
6	Old eroded basement rocks, volcanics; complex soils low in organic matter (mostly <1%) Terrace management of steep slopes
7	n.a.
8	l LU/1.6 acres farmland
9	8.52 LU/farm average; cattle, goats, sheep, chickens
10	38% farmers have 1-5 LU; 97% farmers have cattle or goats
11	Common access grazing areas
12	Privatised access to arable
13	Milk (80% farmers milk cows, 45% milk goats) meat
14	Livestock sales. More sellers than buyers in year before survey
15	Livestock production for milk or meat is not profitable, therefore investment/contingency value is uppermost
16
17	3 (98% maize, 80% beans, cowpeas, pigeon peas)
18	3?
19	2
20	2 (field grazing 47%, risk of damaging terraces)
21	3
22?	or 3
23	1 or 2
24	2?
25
26	Scarcity of arable; only 12% farmers fallow
27	Income sources; animal sales 22%, off-farm work 21%, charcoal sales 6%, others 3%
28
29	2
30
31	Overstocking technically but majority of farmers consider they could support more animals. Terracing, weeds left on fields, animals restricted in field grazing, tree/shrub planting, mulching and manuring all used to control erosion on arable. On grazings, problem of erosion/degradation admitted
32

1	23
2	Friis-Hansen, 1986
3	Tanzania, Iringa District, NE of head of L Malawi
4	>800 mm in 3 of 4 years (SAZ, U,M)
5	Hehe/Benar
6	Sandy loams, stony, low-medium fertility. Effects of villagization on land use.
7	2000 people in 400 households in l village
8	n.a.
9	Mainly cattle, also sheep and goats
10	25% of peasants own 75% of cows and oxen
11	Common access grazing lands on village periphery
12	Private arable allocated on villagization
13
14	Bridewealth; seldom sold
15	Investment of agricultural surpluses
16
17	0 or 1
18
19
20	2
21	2
22	1 or 2
23	2
24	2?
25	Villagization, compelling concentration of arable, increased distances to grazings, with labour (but children now at school); increased crop damage by livestock
26	New arable clearances increased remarkably; afforestation project reducing grazing further
27
28	Rising prices, esp. maize, cat/sing adoption of hybrid maize-inorganic fertilizer-pesticide package
29	2?
30	Hybrid maize; extension of arable; new grazing patterns (villagization)
31	Soil compaction by trampling on cattle tracks and infertile bush near village, causing erosion
32

1	28
2	UNDP/RRC 1984: Getahun, 1978
3	Ethiopia, NW Eritrea/Gondar, and extending W into Sudan
4	400 mm (SAZ, U,D)
5	Beni Amer, nomads (70%) Saho, settled (30%)
6	Recent impoverishment of nomads
7	128,000 (80,000 B. Amer, 48,000 Saho, est. 1983 16/km2
8	20/km2
9	Camels, cattle (50-60/holding) sheep, goats
10	Animals owned by individuals
11	Dry season grazing rights customary or by agreement; rights to land very well regulated; ownership of the feed base divided between clans
12
13	Milk
14	Nomadic system supplies work oxen to other parts of the country. Crop production deficit is made up by livestock production
15	Implied
16
17	1 or 2?
18
19	0?
20
21
22	2
23	1
24	1?
25
26	Arable encroachment by highland farmers on rangelands; agricultural projects and national parks
27
28	No markets
29	1
30	Nomads despise farming but have taken to it to supplement livestock or (if impoverished) replace it.
31	Overstocking alleged; overgrazing, destruction of vegetation in some areas; unproductive invasive species in rangeland. Lower areas undisturbed.
32

1	29
2	Deihl, 1976 (Strecker, 1976); UNDP/RCC, 1984 Agrotec, 1974
3	Ethiopia, S Gamu Gofa Province
4	4-700 mm (SAZ, B. M/D)
5	Dassenich (Geleb)
6	River floods in June. Irrigation and delta culture (L. Rudolph)
7	n.a.
8	n.a.
9	4.7 goats/hh; 1.6 cows/hh; donkeys; chickens (recent)
10
11	Open access grazing
12	Farmland along River Omo claimed by first user; heritable
13	Milk and blood; meat at festivals
14	Bridewealth; sales to buy guns, etc. dried meat sold
15	Implied
16
17	1?
18
19	0?
20	0?
21	0
22
23	2?
24	1 or 2?
25
26	Abundant
27	Gamu Gofa groups do not depend on crops or livestock exclusively. Also fishing
28	Remote from markets, most trading by barter; occasional visits to Kenya trading posts
29	1
30	Flood recession cultivation in Omo delta, L Rudolph, and irrigation along river
31	Tsetse advancing S.
32

2	Ayele, 1982; Yenegnuhal 1981; Getahun, 1978; JEPSS, 1983
3	Ethiopia, Wollo Province, Ambasel, Woreda/Sirinka Valley, NE escarpment
4	<450 - >800 mm (SAZ, B,M/D)
5	Oromo, Afar (lowlands). Amhara (highlands). Description applies to Oromo.
6	Altitudinal profile fundamental; Highlands (>1800 mm) dega, Amhara farmers.
	Valley/bench (1500-1800m) woina dega, Borkenna, Amhara farmers.
	Lowlands (<1400m) kola Oromo mixed farmers. Rangelands, Afar nomads:
	Rainfall diminishes with altitude.
	Rugged terrain on slopes, swamps in valley, alluvial soils in lowlands
7	30(S) - 60 (N)/km2 (1978 est)
8	17-20/km (cattle) (1978 est)
9	Cattle 4.2/hh, sheep 0.3/hh, goats 0.8/hh, poultry; Yenegnuhal gives 2.5 cattle, 3.2 sheep, 2.5 goats, 2.2 chickens, 1.5 donkeys/horse/mule per farmer for Ambasel Woreda (68% > 1400m)
10
11	Open access rangeland in the Afar-Oromo buffer zone; armed clashes
12	Private ownership of farmland in the Central Valley & Oromo lowlands
13	Milk (cows, goats) eggs
14	Sale/renting of transport animals; sale of animals to buy grain; fattening of Afar animals for sale
15	After drought, reinvestment in livestock
16	Herding contracts with Afar in Afar rangelands, March (if small rains fall) or July till October. Residue grazing contracts with Afar friends, Oromo lowlands; Dec - Jan. Middleman contracts to graze central valley farmers cattle in Afar - Oromo buffer zone or subcontract them to Afar herders, July-Aug. Contracts to graze their small stock (with women and children) on Borkenna residues, dry seasons. Renting plough oxen from Afars for share cropping or grain payments (banned by Government). Selling labour to Afar irrigated cotton farmers. Share cropping with migrant farmers from central valley, who provide seed, oxen, labour. All Contracts may involve cash payments
17	2 or 3
18
19	2
20	2
21	2
22	3 (1.4 oxen and 0.8 plough/farmer)
23	1 (cattle only on farm for 2 months for residues)
24	1 25 -
26	Scarce: conflict over rangeland; contracts to equalise land and labour in altitudinal zones. Arable expansion in central valley reduces grazing; needed as retreat in dry years
27	Migrant labour (male) and service (women), Assob, sale of ropes, wood, weaving; livestock trading. Fattening cattle for sale
28	Integration by exchange contracts, which depends on market.
29	2 or 3
30	Intensified contracts(?)
31	Range deterioration in Afar country if the grazing shortage further intensifies competition. Devegetation and erosion on slopes (Yenegnuhal) Firewood, charcoal. Ploughing slopes up to 60°
32	Loss of livestock, income diversification

1	33
2	Strecker, 1976; UNDP/RCC, 1984
3	Ethiopia, S Gamu Gofa Province
4	(SAZ, B. MD)
5	Hamar
6	River floods in June
7	n.a.
8	n.a.
9	Cattle Sheep Goats Donkeys
10	Hamar specialise in goats
11	Open access grazing but certain areas claimed jointly or exclusively by segments
12	Territorial segments tend to be observed
13	Milk, blood; meat at festivals; hides for various purposes
14
15	Cattle ownership highly valued
16
17	1?
18
19	0?
20	0 (slash/burn, flood plain siltation alternatives); 1 (tobacco planted on corral sites)
21	0
22
23	2?
24	1 or 2?
25
26	Abundant
27	Gamu Gofa groups do not depend on livestock or crops exclusively. Also fishing
28	Cattle traded for guns, goats or honey for cloth, coffee, grain. Volume of import-export trade may not reach value of 1 cow/6 goats/hh/2yrs.
29	1
30	Flood recession cultivation in Omo delta, L Rudolph, and irrigation along river.
31	Tsetse spreading S. Soil depletion in medium altitude locations
32	Fluctuations in levels of rivers and L. Rudolph

1	37
2	Ayele, 1975
3	Ethiopia, Arsi Province, Bale sub - highlands
4	600 mm (SAZ, B, M)
5
6	Altitude 1,600 - 1000m. Rainfall falls with altitude. Genale R perennial water, scarce in S.
7	n.a.
8	n.a.
9	Small sample averaged 30 cattle, 5 goats, 2 horses, 5-6 camels/owner interviewed
10	Cattle ownership varies from 100 to 3/owner rich to poor. Marriage gifts and inheritance influence holdings, also management (disease control)
11
12
13	Milk (cows, camels, goats)
14	Cattle and goat sales out of necessity, bridewealth; income of small sample: honey 71% livestock 41% cereals 13%; fattening oxen, bulls for market
15
16	Split families; livestock to highlands dry, to lowlands wet. Renting oxen from livestock specialists
17	2
18
19	1 or 2
20	0 (following) (used for plastering houses)
21	2 or 3
22	2?
23	1
24	1
25
26	Land sales (banned 1974) Diminishing grazing land?
27	Fattening bulls, oxen
28	83% hh heads visit market once or twice weekly. Export of livestock products, honey in exchange for food, consumer goods.
29	1 or 2
30
31
32

1	39
2	Cossins and Bekele, 1974
3	Ethiopia, Tigray Province, Waq and Tembien
4	7-800 mm (SAZ, B,M)
5	Tigreans
6	Waq - a dissected plateau. Tembien - a deep basin. Rugged terrain, heavy erosion, flash floods. Terrace management of steep slopes.
7	n.a.
8	n.a.
9	Tembien (higher) 4-7 cattle, 37-70 sheep/goats/middle income owner; Waq (lower) up to 15 cattle, up to 200 sheep/goats
10	Wealth: richest 10% own x 4 average and poorest 40% as few as zero. Sheep ownership higher on highlands. Few women owners
11	Browse lopping open access, daily grazing 6-8 km (wet) several days away (dry) common or open access
12	Individual ownership, heritable, saleable; renting 1-3 years common
13	milk, butter
14	Sales of livestock essential in drought; wool blankets sold
15	Contingency investment essential
16	Shepherd boys paid in animals, cash or milking. Fallows leased to cattle owners for manure; crop divided
17	2 (stubble cannot be privatised)
18	0 or 1?
19	2
20	2
21	2
22	1
23	1 or 2
24	1 or 2?
25
26	Arable expansion necessitates longer grazing circuits
27	Fattening sheep and goats for sale Labour migration
28	Livestock products, honey sold for food, consumer goods. 45% Tembien farmers visit market weekly
29	2 or 3
30
31	Lopping and felling of browse trees in dry years. Massive gully erosion. Terraces, restraining walls on gullies
32	Loss of livestock; diminished market activity; zero yields on up to 86% fields, permanent labour migration.

1	41
2	Kjaerby, 1980
3	Tanzania, Hanang District
4	(SAZ, B/U, M)
5	Barbaig
6	Impact of villagization on grazing system
7	54,590 in 8,309 homesteads, expected to double in 20-25 years
8	300,000 cattle, 100,000 small stock (author's estimates)
9	Cattle, small stock @ 36 cattle/hh of 6.6 people and 12 small stock (calculated from author's figures)
10
11	Common access grazing, not secure from registered allocations to farms
12	Government allocations
13	Meat (slaughters on special occasions; dying animals or diseased also) Milk
14	Low offtake (2% cattle) but sold for food, to finance implements, inputs or labour. Income of cattle keeping families is x 2 that of non cattle owning families. Bridewealth.
15	Cattle keeping the most reliable hedge against shortfalls in crop production
16
17
18
19
20
21
22
23
24	'No form of integration between crop and cattle production' instead, labour competition
25	Villagization causing reverse dispersal of population (below)
26	Arable expansion driving grazing out of high altitude dry-season pastures and away from villages; incoming cultivators and capitalist farmers in villages
27
28	Govt. policy to increase cattle offtake is resisted because (a) investment value of cattle (b) scarce commodity supply hence demand for cash (c) dietary preference (milk). 1957-75 T of T moved against cattle (15-2 bags maize)
29	1 or 2
30	Move into maize cultivation (see 28)
31	Herd mortality higher near villages than in frontier areas due to overstocking; environmental consequences of un-integrated system
32

1	43
2	Cossins et al, 1984
3	Ethiopia, Harerghe Province, Jijiga area
4	700 mm (SAZ, B. M)
5	Somali
6	Flat topped limestone hills, calcareous soils. Pediments, calcareous soils, erodible. Vertisols. Rainfall gradient from NW to SE
7
8	50 animals/km2 (1971)
9	Cattle, sheep, goats, camels; in 1971 farmers herds in 3 clans included 30-75 sheep, 8-21 goats, 13-17 cattle and 1-3 camels
10	Differences between clans and between farmers (fewer camels, more cattle) and pastoralists
11	Common access grazing
12	Registered allocations to capitalist farmers until 1974
13	Milk, meat
14
15	Livestock are more important to their owners than farming
16
17	Highlands West 2 Highland East 2 Jijiga Plains l or 2
18
19		2?	2?
20		1 or 2?	1?
21		1 or 2	1 or 2
22		1 or 2	1 or 2
23		1	2
24		1	2
25	Incoming farmers
26	Grazing land transferred to arable especially in valley bottoms
27
28	Livestock sales to Somali Republic
29	Highlands W 2 or 3 E 2 Jigiga Plainsl
30	Tractor ploughing even though large-scale farming abolished in 1975
31	Rangeland degradation is due to the timing of grazing rather than the numbers of animals; overpopulated x 2 or x 3 (Pratt); annuals replacing other grasses, palatables being eaten out; cultivation of unsuitable dry areas.
32

1	44
2	Timberlake and Jordao, 1985
3	Mozambique, Maputo, Gaza, Inhambane
4	5-800 mm (SAZ, ST, M(D))
5	n.a.
6	n.a.
7	n.a.
8	6 cattle/km2 family sector decreasing at 1% pa, 1977-83
9	Range from 2 to 16 cattle/family
10	In southern 3 provinces, 7, 16, and 27% families own cattle
11	Communal areas - common access grazing for sedentary or semi-nomadic
12
13	Milk, meat
14	Offtake about 4% cattle, only sold in special circumstances. SR sold to meet current expenses
15	Implied strongly
16
17	1 or 2
18
19	2?
20	2 uncommonly
21	1
22	1
23	1 or 2
24	2?
25
26	Abundance of grazing (and by implication arable) land since S provinces are 50% understocked, but see 31
27
28	Low offtake
29	1?
30
31	Overgrazing reported near water in communal areas. Soil erosion advanced in 20% area
32

1	46
2	ARDA 1982-84
3	Zimbabwe, S Matabele land
4	3-600 mm (SAZ, U/ST, D) Ecological Region IV/V
5	Matabele
6	Granite and gneiss variable sands, loamy sands. Basalt clay complex soils, fertile.' Gold belt' complex, heavy, relatively fertile. Deciduous tree savanna. Rainfall unreliable.
7	25/km2
8	LU 8-38/km2 (2-11 ha/LU)
9	Goats 3-8/hh, donkeys 4-6,-chickens 8-14, cattle 6-13, sheep 0-7, some pigs
10	Goats, donkeys more numerous in Zone V; chickens, cattle in Zone IV. Zone IV hh own more assets
11	Communal grazing areas, no exclusive rights
12	Family and individual lands held by virtue of community membership, exclusive rights
13	Milk, meat
14	Offtake 6-10%; income used for (1) food purchases, (2) school fees: (3) other needs
15	Implied
16
17	1 or 2
18
19	1 or 2
20	2 or 3 (depending on crop and zone - in Zone IV use is 70-90% plots (highest maize); in Zone V 5-25% ('burns' crops)
21	2 or 3 (oxen dominant in Zone IV, donkeys Zone V)
22	2 or 3
23	2
24	2
25
26	Commercial land occupies over 50% total
27	1.2-1.7 males/hh and 1.2-2.2 females/hh away from home, remitting. Cash income/hh and value of food production/hh both higher in Zone IV
28
29	2?
30
31	Attempts to introduce soil conservation measures and to intensify management of arable on a smaller area have had little success. Overstocking claims disputed by Sandford (1982) on absence of evidence of degradation
32	60% hh reported livestock losses by death; average reduction in all stock 50% in 12 months

1	47
2	Steinfeld, 1988, Thiesen and Marasha, 1974
3	Zimbabwe, Chilimanzi, SE of Geweru
4	700 mm (SAZ, U,M) Ecological zone III
5	Shona
6	Ferallitic sandy soils; depressions (vleis)
7	50/km2
8	LU 8/km2
9	6.4 cattle/hh, 2.5 goats, 0.2 sheep, 0.4 donkeys, some pigs
10	Hh owning vlei land have larger herds. Men own most stock, women may own small stock
11	Communal grazing areas, no exclusive rights
12	Family and individual lands held by virtue of community membership, exclusive rights
13	Milk, meat (small stock). Food less important than crop inputs
14	Livestock products least important source of income. Goats sold for cash
15	Needs for livestock primarily draft, transport and subsistence but social security and sale value are significant, former for 'spiritual integrity'
16
17	2 (progressive farmers), 20-25% total feed
18	? but see 46,63
19	1
20	2 (incl. anthills) - more LUs = more manuring = larger yields (total). 5-9 t/ha
21	2 (75% owning - 3% use donkeys, 91% oxen)
22	2
23	2
24	2
25
26	Continuous arable encroachment on grazing
27	Off-farm income 32%, remittances 13%, of crop sales 49%, livestock products 6% of cash income. Vlei cultivators have more LUs more and better literacy, child nutrition, and lower mortality. 40% male (adults) absent. 50% family heads work for urban wages.
28	3-9% cattle offtake, 11% goats. 76% families who sell livestock have > 6LUs, the viability threshold
29	2
30
31	Severe erosion in grazing areas, sheet erosion and gullying; vlei cultivation; abandonment of conservation; 'overstocking'
32

1	48
2	Steinfeld, 1988
3	Zimbabwe: Mberengwa, NE of Beitbridge
4	520 mm (SAZ, U/ST, D) Ecological zone V
5	Ndebele
6	Ferallitic sandy soils; depressions (vleis)
7	n.a.
8	LU 20/km2
9	4.9 cattle/hh, 10.3 goats, 1.9 donkeys, 0.1 sheep
10	(see 46, 47, 63) Importance of goats and donkeys reflects aridity. More non-owners than 47
11	Communal grazing areas, no exclusive rights
12	Family and individual lands held by virtue of community membership, exclusive rights
13	Milk, meat (goats esp) More important than crop input functions
14	Livestock products least important. Goats sold for cash needs
15	Cattle - accumulated wealth, security
16
17	2 (2,000 kg DM/hh) <10% total feed
18
19
20	2 (4.7 t/ha)
21	2 (56% owning) (21% using donkeys, 75% oxen)
22	2
23	2
24	2 Less crop/livestock integration than 47
25
26	Continuous arable encroachment on grazing
27	Off farm income 45% remittances 21% cf crop sales 29% and livestock prod. 4% of cash income
28	Offtake - 7.6% (cattle), 15.3% (goats) i.e. buying in cattle, post drought
29	1 or 2
30
31	'Overstocking' but feed resources adequate summer and 60% winter
32	65% cattle losses in three years

1	49
2	Little, 1983
3	Kenya, Baringo District, Njemps
4	6-800 mm (SAZ, B,M)
5	Il Chamus
6	High rainfall variability
7	range 8 - 66/km2
8	n.a.
9
10	Wealthy Il Chamus prefer irrigation (10% own 40% land); the poor do dryland farming
11	Common access grazings
12	Irrigable plots allocated by elders or council. Borrowing, purchase, Dryland plots used one year at a time, not heritable
13
14	Cash from livestock sales is most important source of income
15	Implied
16
17	2 or 3?
18
19
20
21	(some tractors)
22	1 or 2
23	1 or 2
24	1 or 2 Labour bottlenecks Feb-Mar (dryland) July-Aug (irrig)
25	Permanent settlements for irrigation
26	Irrigable land scarce. Irrigation on fringes of swamps reduces dry season grazing
27	Irrigation development may have reached its limits and may jeopardise pastoralism in the long term
28	T o T of livestock have declined in 25 years, encouraging cultivation (cf. Barbaig)
29	1
30	Increased irrigation and dryland farming
31
32

1	50
2	Rukandema et al, 1983
3	Kenya, Southern Kitui District (2 locations)
4	530,800 mm (SAZ, B. D/M)
5	Akamba
6	Slopes 2-160 with steep slopes to 50o. Seasonal streams, acacia bush
7	n.a.
8	n.a.
9	Cattle, 11-12/farmer (?), sheep 7-11, goats 4-10, donkeys, chickens
10	SR holdings smaller in drier location. Fewer own cattle, goats, sheep in drier location
11	Common access grazings
12	Registered title
13	Milk (76=80%) farmers), meat
14	Cash income 72-83% (higher in wetter location)
15	Livestock valued for 'tradition' and 'breeding'
16
17	1 or (20%) 2
18
19
20	2 by 25% (wetter) and 13% (drier) locations
21	1 or 2
22	1
23	1
24	2?
25
26
27	Off farm income more important than crops which are more important than livestock
28
29	2?
30
31	66-70% farmers cite erosion as most important factor restricting soil productivity, 47-53% cite infertility. 23-31% farms wholly or partly terraced
32

1	51
2	Rukandema et al, 1981
3	Kenya, S Machakos District
4	777 mm (SAZ, B,M)
5	Akamba
6	Gently undulating. Sandy soils, vertisol patches, seasonal streams, acacia bush
7
8	100 LU/km2
9	Cattle 7/owner, 10 goats and 3-4 sheep/farm
10	80% farmers own cattle, 82% goats, 49% sheep
11	Common access grazing
12	Registered title(?) including fallow
13	Milk (73% cattle, 55% goat, 37% sheep owners)
14	78% keep goats for sale, 44% sheep, 88% cattle
15	Implied
16
17	2 or 3 (92% feed)
18
19	2 or (8%) 3
20	2? (68% use)
21	3 (78% own ploughs)
22	1
23	2 or 3 (80% keep on farm - incl. fallows and stallfeeding, 10% - all year)
24	2 or 3
25
26
27	Off-farm income greatest on smallest farms, next on largest farms - 90% cf. gross farm income from crops and livestock
28
29	1 (26% farm land under cultivation)
30
31	Erosion cited as principal factor limiting productivity by 61% farmers, infertility by 41%. 'Extremely overstocked'
32	Crop failure, increased dry planting

1	53
2	Campbell, 1978; 1979; Bekure et al, 1987; Holland, 1987
3	Kenya, Kajiado District, Loitokitok area
4	3-600 mm (SAZ, B,D,)
5	Maasai
6
7	10/km2
8	38 TLU/km2
9	Cattle, sheep, goats
10	86% own cattle, 80% own sheep and 80% goats
11	Common access grazings, title to areas recognised
12	Common access? Outsiders may purchase
13	Milk, blood?, meat (occasions)
14	Livestock sales provided 31% cash income
15	Implied
16
17
18
19
20
21
22
23
24
25	Non-Maasai farmer in-migrants since 1967
26	Loss of grazing land to cultivation and national park, also private ranches and government
27	Trading wage labour and wood/charcoal sales yield 36% cash income cf 31% from livestock sales, 10% from crop sales.
28
29
30
31
32	Increased cultivated area. Famine relief given to fewer Maasai farmers (41%) than non-Maasai farmers (53%) or Maasai pastoralists (67%) - diversification (see 27). Livestock losses

1	54
2	Swallow et al, 1987
3	Lesotho (majority of samples in SAZ)
4	(SAZ, ST, M)
5	Basotho
6	Mountainous terrain
7
8
9	Ave. holdinjg 7.5 cattle, 54.6 sheep, 37.5 goats, 2.4 horses, 2.5 donkeys
10
11	Common access to cattlepost grazing subject to permits (all Basotho). Community access to village grazings subject to rotational use controlled by chiefs. Community access to residues grazing.
12	Individual or family
13	Milk (cows, small amounts sheep/goats) meat (sheep/goats, cattle rare except at ceremonies) offal, hides
14	Milk sale rare; livestock sales and products
15	Livestock valued after cash savings or loans for meeting emergencies and for savings. Breeding principle reason given for owning all types.
16	Mafisa system of entrustment during transhumance, Oct-Jan to Apr-May
17	1 or 2
18
19	3
20	1 with collection, 36% hh use (used more for plastering walls)
21	3
22	3?
23	1
24	1
25
26	57-70% households consider summer, winter and village grazing areas sufficient
27	Miners' remittances most important source of income, followed by others, livestock sales, crop/fodder sales, building/thatching
28	Widespread use of financial institutions implied: 462 cattle managers sold 100 cattle in one year; 250 sheep sold 534; 235 goat sold 183.
29	1 or 2
30
31	Regulation of grazing (see 11). Erosion rarely seen as a constraint to livestock production
32

1	55
2	Carvalho, 1971
3	Angola SW - Cunene and Cuanhama regions
4	500-650 mm (SAZ, U,D)
5	Khumbi
6	1000 m Erratic rainfall; transitional between C highlands & drier SW. Evanda (floodplain grasslands) and etunda (upland deciduous woodland, waterless in dry season plus chana (upland depressions) in Cunene; Cuanhama has extensively flooded basin with islands - mufito
7	15/km2 (Cunene) 33/km2 (Cuanhama) approx.
8	15/km2 (Cunene) 20/km2 (Cuanhama) cattle only
9	Cattle
10
11	Common access grazing
12	Common access farmland, usufructuary rights?
13	Milk
14	Sales of young animals for traction in C Highlands
15	Implied
16	Herds of mixed ownership entrusted to herders who receive milk, manure, draft and meat (fallen animals), occasional progeny
17	1?
18
19	0?
20	1?
21	1?
22	1?
23	1
24
25
26	Private ranch enclosures of community land; access to water disrupted
27	Farming fishing gathering plus grazing
28	Livestock sales commercially integrated - slaughter and traction animals
29	1
30	Commercial ranching under the Portuguese
31	Extensive ranching causes rangeland deterioration but mobility of indigenous system permits high livestock and human densities
32

1	57
2	Gaosegelwe et al, 1983
3	Botswana, Ngamiland
4	450-550 mm (SAZ U,D)
5	Several
6	Okavango swamps, upland perimeter; deep sandy loams, clays
7	Low
8	n.a.
9	Variable (see 10)
10	29% farmers have no cattle, 41% 1-10 (male headed, fewer none and more with 1-10 cf female headed)
11	Common access grazing
12	Privatised fields - wet or dry swamp fields (molapo) dryland fields
13	Milk (cows)
14
15	Mines earnings and crop sales income invested in cattle
16
17
18
19
20
21	2 or 3 (varies among villages)
22	1
23	2 (cattlepost system)
24
25	Refugees from Angola - farmers - in addition to local livestock specialists and mixed farmers
26	Molapo land becoming scarce (increased demand, less water)
27	Mines labour; all hh engage in major off-farm activities to supplement incomes and spread risks by diversification
28
29	1
30	Wet molapo land receives priority (scramble)
31	Reduced inflow to Okavango Delta. Concentration of cattle near water courses, local range deterioration
32

1	59
2	Miller and Seleka, 1985; Gray, 1985
3	Botswana, Tutume District
4	3-500 mm (SAZ, B/ST, D)
5	Bakalanga
6
7
8
9	Cattle, sheep, goats, donkeys, chickens; 18 SR/hh
10	16-46% hh own no cattle, 86% no donkeys, 16% no SR, 3-10% no chickens
11	Common access grazing
12	Community access to arable
13	Milk, meat (38% use cattle meat, 94% use SR milk, 80% use meat)
14	Sales of milk or cattle <10% hh. Small stock
15	Implied
16
17
18
19
20	1 or 2 (3-11% hh use manure)
21	3
22	2
23	2 (cattle post system)
24	2
25
26
27	78% hh have >3 income sources; in 41% primary income source; 82% have >1 member earning wages away
28
29
30
31
32

1	60
2	Teitelbaum, 1984
3	Sudan, N. Kordofan Province
4	3-400 mm (SAZ, U. D)
5	Baggara (Hawazma)
6	Cracking days, stabilised qoz sands
8
9	Cattle, camels, goats, sheep, donkeys
10	Mobility: transhumant nomads have largest cattle herds: >100 transhumant farmers: '100 head sedentary farmers: <20 head, some have SR only
11	Open access grazing
12	Lineage title to cropland
13	Milk, meat (occasions). Those without cattle receive milk from kinsmen
14
15	Bridewealth. Livestock sales to purchase food, esp. nomads
16	Farmers split herds, and remain at home, but Usually arranged within family. Fariq or cooperative transhumant group Sedentary farmers manage farms for transhumant kin
17	1 trending to 2 (some farmers attempt to sell)
18
19
20	1
21	1?
22	3
23	1
24	1
25	Sedentarization of over half nomads with fewer cattle; 'nomadization' of younger men trying to increase herds, incl. those traditionally sedentary.
26	Encroachment of mechanised cotton farms on cracking clay grazings; horticulture near wells impedes access to water. Dry season natural fodder shortage in S. Kordofan; wet season 'overgrazing' in N. Kordofan.
27	Transhumant farmers diversify into trades, etc. Nomads are the most specialised
28
29	1, locally 2
30	(see 25)
31	Range burning increases unpalateable species, reduces cover, causes erosion; together with the loss of grazing land (see 26) stocking burden on remaining pastures increases.
32	Tree cutting for fuel removes browse

1	61
2	Cook et al, 1984; Frankenberger et al., 1984
3	Sudan, N. Kordofan, El Obeid (50 km radius)
4	347 mm (SAZ, U,D)
5	Baggara?
6	Clay soils, qoz soils: 35% reduction in rainfall
7	n.a.
8	n.a.
9	Cattle 5/hh, sheep 5, goats 6, donkeys l, camels 0.5, horses 0.1, poultry
10	90% farmers own livestock; 60% own no cattle, (negatively correlated with wealth) 80% own goats; 72% own (usually) l donkey
11	Open access grazing
12	Owned and rented
13	Milk
14	Livestock (usually goats) sold to nomads in rains to finance labour hiring; sold in village in dry season to finance food purchases
15	Investment in animals is a response to environmental uncertainty
16
17	1 or 2; sorghum very important
18
19	3? Water melon used as fodder
20	1?
21	0 or 1
22	2
23	1
24	1
25	Village population fluctuates, highest in wet (farming season) when nomads arrive from S. (see Case 60)
26	Rangeland degradation and arable encroachment
27	Nearly every family has off farm income - wage migration, charcoal, water, trade, crafts, food
28	Market interaction increases when nomads come; increasing cultivation of sesame, groundnuts for the market
29	1, locally 2?
30	New crop preferences (see 28)
31	'Tragedy of the commons' degradation
32

1	62
2	Bunderson et al 1986; Cook et al, 1984
3	Sudan, Kordofan, Nuba Mts.
4	600-800 mm (SAZ, U,D,)
5	Nuba (some Baggara)
6	Catena from rocky hill slopes through sandy loam lower slopes to cracking clays
7	About 50/km2?
8	About 50 LU/km2?
9	Cattle 17/hh; goats 20; sheep, pigs
10	Nuba own 30% of livestock (Baggara 70%) but grow 90% of crops
11	Open access grazing, unmanaged, some group autonomy through control of water
12	Individual usufruct, heritable; sale, loan, renting where scarce
13	Milk, esp important in wet season camps.
14	Milk rarely sold. Livestock sold to finance food purchases
15	Implied
16	Herders take livestock to hill camps in wet (away from crops, flies)
17	1 incl. sorghum on clay soils; 2 (groundnut tops only);
18	0 or 1
19	0
20	1? 2 on house gardens (jubrakas) which may be terraced
21	0
22	1 or 2
23	1
24	1 or 2
25
26
27	Charcoal, wood, timber, thatching, labour migration, herding (for transhumants), irrigated gardens.
28	Market production of livestock, larger herds than formerly
29	2?
30	(See 27) Larger herds because of better security, changing customs, easier access to water and grazing
31	Southward desertification (See Case 60)
32

1	63
2	Balderrama, et al. 1988; Cousins et al, 1989
3	Zimbabwe, Chivi South
4	560 mm (SAZ, U,M) Ecological Region IV/V
5	Shona
6	Sandy soils (sandveld). Heavy soils (clayveld) (depression (vlei) soils Rainfall varies between 200 and 100 mm
7	55/km2
8	n.a.
9	Goats, cattle, donkeys (frequency ownership order); 2.4 cows/hh and 1.8 oxen/hh
10	89% female headed hh own goats, 61% male
11	Communal grazing areas, no exclusive rights
12	Family and individual lands held by virtue of community membership, exclusive rights
13	Milk, (goats, socially improper) meat (goats, mainly)
14	Sales of goats, poultry ensure food security; cattle owners plant more maize (risky) than millet; milk sales uncommon
15	Cattle are valued for (a) savings and (b) draft
16	Entrustment to caretakers of large herds who use draft, manure and gain some progeny
17	1 or 2 (12% total feed)
18	2 (enthusiasm for fodder trees)
19	1 or 2
20	1 sometimes 3. Ave. 10 t/ha (mostly maize). 57% farmers carry termite mound soil to fields, 38% apply leaf litter
21	2 (most use 4 animals, 50% cattle, 34% donkeys)
22	2
23	2
24	2
25
26	Arable percentage 36-42%, 1975-87, grazing 64-58%; arable includes 20-25% fallow. Expansion of private fields to adjacent grazing.
27	40% hh have formal sector, 42% local wage labour, 80% self employed incomes. Oxen fattened by richer owners
28	Offtake low but rises when herd exceeds 8
29	2
30	Commercial farmers cultivate vlei soils (banned from 1960)
31	Vlei soils damaged by deep cultivation, oxidation of organic matter, decomposition, erosion. Traditional vlei ridging system abandoned. Cattle damage to banks. Evidence of degradation of grazings is controversial (Cousins et al)
32	Average herd sizes fell, 1976-84 but percentage of hh owning cattle, goats increased