32. In the process of implementing the many different project types itemized above, African governments and external donors have been forced to recognize that it is not easy to improve upon traditional pastoralism. Earlier, officials condemned traditional practices without understanding the systemic reasons which accounted for their success. Experienced livestock advisors are today much more cautious in predicting how interventions will perform, because they know at first hand what the difficulties have been. These include:
(i) Effective development usually requires inter-sectoral cooperation between different technical functions. The key areas in regard to pastoral development include how water and land rights are allocated, land use planning, the financing and operation of improved water supplies, veterinary services, adequate security, available animal production packages, and extension contact and training. Most of all, improved marketing is essential so that producers receive attractive prices. It is, in fact, fairly rare to find these inter-linked measures operationally effective in the same place.(ii) There are in fact relatively few 'technical packages' which perform well under adverse managerial and resource circumstances. Most improved practices which livestock development departments have been recommending are suited to more highly capitalized, medium-to-high potential ranges. The heavier beef animals which pastoralists were urged to adopt require better forage and more water than can be supplied in dry periods. Indigenous stock have generally shown greater disease resistance, trekking ability, and hardiness than the introduced stock being promoted.
(iii) Some of the grazing and disease control measures require joint action by all users of a range before they are profitable to individuals. Tick control or saving forage until later in the season are wasted effort if they are only partially adopted.
(iv) Many capital improvements presuppose permanent residence, so that producers will enjoy the benefits for an extended period. But at the same time, fixed residence brings with it a buildup of parasites and diseases, and leaves the herds more vulnerable to the spatial variability in rainfall which is characteristic of the drier rangelands.
(v) Fixed investments in things like fencing or improved water tend to be perceived as a threat to other users of common property resources. Encouraging fixed investments accelerates the individuation of land holdings, and consequently the vulnerability of those using the most marginal pastures or lacking political power within the community.
(vi) Most improvements are effective only if accompanied by security for people and animals using the range. When producers are subject to frequent raiding or when resources can be alienated by force, they lose any incentive to upgrade their herds and their pastures.
(vii) Introduced systems for stock management were heavily oriented towards production of cattle for end-sale. It was not recognized that the producers depended upon various types of stock which had to be managed differently. As a total system, indigenous pastoralism could support more people on the land than can the introduced, special purpose systems.
(viii) In some pastoral systems (particularly within East Africa), the social system puts livestock under the control of elders - even to the detriment of the interests of women, young children and young men. In many East African pastoral communities, one can find younger men who want to manage stock in different ways but are denied control over the herds by their older relatives.
(ix) Range science concentrates upon the management of grassland resources; but it is now clear that browse and browsing species like camels and goats may be more important for the success of African pastoralism. In regard to these topics, pastoralists may well be more knowledgeable than are the specialists.
