This chapter highlights work from experimental trials and producer surveys concerning livestock management and productivity in the Borana system. Most of these studies were conducted in average rainfall years under conditions of moderate to high stocking rates of cattle. The primary focus is on cattle, which are the most important livestock species to the Boran. Ancillary livestock include small ruminants, camels, equines and poultry.
General aspects of cattle husbandry including maintenance of a female-dominated herd structure, allocation of animals to local or satellite herds to conserve local resources, uncontrolled breeding, milking management for cows, intensive hand-rearing of nursing calves and differentiation of labour according to gender and age are similar to elsewhere in semi-arid Africa. One unusual feature, however, is a high degree of water restriction for cattle during dry seasons such that animals may be watered only once every three to four days. This practice is probably permitted, in part, by the relatively cool ambient temperatures which help cattle conserve body water otherwise used for thermoregulation. Restricted watering is a long-held practice of the Boran that has positive attributes in terms of conserving human labour, extending grazing radii from water points and increasing water-use efficiency. Results from trials conducted under ranch conditions indicate that cattle watered once every three days during dry seasons may lose weight faster than those on daily watering. This is because restricted watering reduces forage intake; however, cattle on restricted watering can compensate by regaining weight faster during subsequent rainy periods. One significant short-term cost of restricted watering, however, is a reduction in milk production of around 13%. The ability of cattle on restricted watering to regain weight or minimise reduction in milk production is probably constrained to a higher degree under the high stocking rates characteristic of pastoral management compared with those observed under experimental conditions.
A general synthesis of key aspects of productivity and management for mature cattle indicates that (1) the ratio of females to males in the regional cattle herd is 71:29; (2) cows have their first calf at 4 to 4.5 years of age and may produce an average of 6 to 6.5 calves over a reproductive life of 8 to 8.5 years; (3) the average calving interval is 14 to 15 months; (4) milk yields/cow range from 680 to 1000 kg for lactations which vary from seven to 13 months, respectively; (5) the median milk yield/cow is 850 kg over 320 days (or 2.6 kg/head/day); (6) annual calving rates average around 70%; (7) mature weights for Boran bulls and cows are 400 and 225 kg, respectively; and (8) mortality rates for animals >2 years of age are <5% per annum in average to dry rainfall years. These productivity figures appear reasonably good for cattle under traditional pastoral management and are even comparable to the lower range of productivity values for animals reared under ranching and research station conditions in sub-Saharan Africa. This provides some circumstantial evidence to support contentions that indigenous Boran cattle are relatively more productive than other African breeds and/or that the central Borana Plateau is a particularly good environment for cattle production.
Season has a dramatic effect on cattle breeding and milk production. Nearly 70% of calf births occur during the long rains and another 17% during the short rains. Daily milk production/cow roughly doubles in rainy seasons compared with dry seasons and during dry seasons fewer cows are lactating. Lactation curves are unusual in that they may have a bimodal, rather than unimodal, shape which probably illustrates acute seasonal constraints in cow nutrition during some years. Cattle productivity may also vary with regards to wealth class of pastoral households. Cows held by poor households reportedly have lower calving rates, lower milk production, lower absolute milk offtake for human consumption, lower milk intake for calves and higher rates of calf mortality than cows held by wealthier households. These patterns may be largely attributable to a higher milking intensity in poorer households.
Productivity may also be influenced by grade of cow. The Boran recognise three classes of milk cows (i.e. high, intermediate and low producers) and these vary substantially in terms of daily yields, with high producers yielding over 50% more milk than low producers. Household surveys suggest that despite greater milk production in higher-producing cows, they may have a longer calving interval than lower producers. Costs of higher milk production may thus be related to the extent to which higher-producing cows must mine body reserves in support of lactation, which may then compromise reproduction. Different production classes of cows may also vary in terms of vulnerability to resource restriction during dry years and drought. Informants report that high milk producers are among the first to perish during difficult circumstances. Another important factor that limits milk production efficiency is ticks. A survey of 560 milk cows indicated that 13% of teats were closed as a result of tick-induced damage. This implies that an average eight-cow household may need one extra cow simply to offset this loss in milk production capacity.
Compared with other aspects of cattle productivity, calf growth rates appear to be low. Birth weights average 18 kg and are affected by season of parturition. Field studies that quantified growth from birth to 210 days of age indicate average daily gains for nursing calves are variable but approximately 136 g/head/day, typically < 1 % of live weight. Growth is probably substantially influenced by competition with humans for milk, as milk offtake for people averages 30 to 40% of total yields in general. At 250 days of age a calf which consumes 195 kg of a milk yield (i.e. 35% of production) may weigh around 60 kg, which is only 45% of the live weight of 132 kg projected had the calf had access to all the milk.
Calf mortality rate appears high and similar to that in other pastoral systems in Africa. Producer surveys suggest mortality rates and sources vary according to interactions among wealth of pastoral households and type of rainfall year. Averaged over all years, wealthy, intermediate and poor households reported calf mortality rates of 24%, 16% and 30%, respectively. It has been postulated that the high mortality rates for calves of the wealthy are primarily caused by disease-related factors that result from a reduced management input per calf. The higher mortality rates for calves held by the poor are probably more related to nutritional stress arising from competition with people for milk. Across all households in a modal rainfall year calf mortality may average 22 to 25%. Roughly half of the deaths are primarily due to poor nutrition and the other half are caused by health complications such as calf scours, black leg, pasteurolosis and foot-and-mouth disease. In a dry year mortality rates are similar, but two-thirds of the losses are directly attributable to nutrition. In a drought year 70 to 90% of the calf crop may be lost, all primarily due to poor nutrition.
Calf management is typically performed by married women and the pattern of management changes depending on season of birth of the calf. Calves born during the dry seasons or short rains typically receive more intensive care, which reflects greater scarcity of resources and higher competition with people for milk during these times. Management by women includes gathering cut-and-carry forage and hauling water for relatively immobile calves which are kept in or near the family hut.
More limited observations on ancillary livestock suggest that productivity and management practices for goats, sheep and camels are similar to what is found elsewhere in semi-arid Africa. Exceptions may include that sheep are apparently rarely milked in average rainfall years and breeding among small ruminants is uncontrolled. Camels serve various purposes depending on ethnic group; the minority Gabra rely on camels mostly as a milk producer, while the Boran use camels more for hauling goods and occasionally for pulling ploughs. In contrast to cattle, disease appears to be a more pervasive constraint to production of small ruminants and camels. This may be an artefact of the relatively moist conditions in which these species are commonly held in upper semi-arid and subhumid locations. Equines are often observed on the Borana Plateau but occur at low population densities. Donkeys are used to haul goods, while mules and horses are ridden by men. Little is known about the importance of chickens to the Borana household, even though they can be frequently seen in encampments. It is postulated that chickens may be an increasingly important market item for Borana households in pert-urban locations.
