7.1. Background
7.2. Regional Forestry Research Needs
7.3. Research Needs of Common Concern
7.4. Current Status of Forestry Research
7.5. Future Directions of CGIAR Forestry Research
The CGIAR System decided to incorporate forestry and agroforestry into its activities because of the seriousness of the issues associated with them and their direct bearing on the CGIAR's mission to increase the welfare of poor people in developing countries. Research has an important role to play in containing deforestation and reducing its negative effects, and in enhancing the contribution of trees and forests to food and energy security and to the creation of off-farm employment.
In its overview of the background factors to consider in devising an institutional framework for forestry and agroforestry, TAC noted that trees not only contribute to economic growth but also provide environmental services. TAC took particular note of the concern emerging worldwide over the impact of deforestation and forest burning on global warming, loss of biodiversity, soil erosion, changing water flow patterns, flooding, and fuelwood shortages.
The research needed to deal with these problems is multisectoral as well as multidisciplinary, involving a complex blend of atmospheric, meteorological, energy, agriculture, forestry, policy and other aspects. The CGIAR System has neither the capacity nor the comparative advantage to implement effective research in all of these areas. However, it could make a useful contribution in areas such as the conservation of germplasm of endangered woody species, and policy research to improve understanding of the underlying causes of deforestation and of the potential solutions. In agroforestry research, the CGIAR should aim at providing shifting cultivators with alternatives to slash-and-burn agriculture, and sedentary farmers with alternative sources of fuelwood, mulch and forage, and with more stable and fertile soils.
7.2.1. Sub-Saharan Africa
7.2.2. West Asia-North Africa
7.2.3. Asia
7.2.4. Latin America and the Caribbean
About a quarter of the land area of sub-Saharan Africa is wooded or forested, while nearly half supports grass, with or without shrubs and trees. Much of the latter area is suitable for grazing. Some 135 million ha have been set aside as nature reserves or national parks, providing a habitat for wildlife. These areas play a key role in conserving germplasm and in contributing to the region's significant revenues from tourism.
The increasing human and livestock population pressure has led to overcutting and overgrazing of woodlands. This has drained nutrients from forest soils and has exacerbated soil erosion, accelerated water run-off and created serious local shortages of fuelwood and fodder. Overcutting of trees and shrubs at the farm level exposes soils and crops to wind and can depress yields significantly.
Although sub-Saharan Africa currently has 700 million ha of tree cover, only 210 million ha of this are closed forest. About 490 million ha are open savannah woodlands. Deforestation is proceeding at a rate of about 3.7 million ha a year.
In addition to the more obvious forest products, such as fuelwood, building poles, timber, furniture, pulpwood and paper, the productivity of sub-Saharan Africa's forests, woodlands and perennial tree crops can be measured by their direct contribution to cash income as well as their indirect contribution to agriculture through the maintenance of soil nutrients and the protection of soil and water resources. Non-wood commodities derived from forests, such as animal and fish protein, fruit, nuts and berries, are important foods and sources of income. However, it is obvious that the productivity of forest and farm trees in many areas is well below potential.
Future research strategies, which also apply to some other regions, have four main directions: first, towards improved understanding of the underlying causes of deforestation and the potential for policy reforms and the conservation of remaining forest resources; second, towards increasing the utilization intensity and productivity of natural closed forests and savannah woodlands; third, towards cost-effective incentive policies and technological improvements for encouraging farmer and community involvement in reforestation; fourth, towards the development of mixed crop-livestock-tree systems.
Deforestation in West Asia-North Africa has been going on for centuries, and not more than 25 million ha of closed forests remain (the lowest of all four regions). The main pressures on forest resources have been grazing, the demand for fuelwood, and the expansion of the cultivated area.
Palatable shrubs form an essential component of rangeland feed resources. They may extend the grazing season and help to reduce the impact of erosion, especially where it is impossible to maintain perennial grasses. They are often the main productive component in sheep husbandry systems. However, due to overexploitation much of the palatable woody vegetation of rangelands in West Asia-North Africa has been removed or replaced by unpalatable shrubs.
In Iran, Israel, Jordan, and Syria it has been demonstrated that it is possible to regenerate over-exploited rangelands through controlled grazing, contour furrowing, the construction of micro-catchments, the reseeding of perennial and annual grasses and legumes, protecting seedlings of wood perennials, and the removal of unpalatable species. The widespread application of such approaches depends on policies that will provide incentives to farmers and communities.
As in sub-Saharan Africa and Asia, a high research priority for West Asia-North Africa is increasing the productivity of selected higher yielding fodder trees and shrubs. The development of salt-tolerant and/or drought-resistant species for the reclamation of agricultural wasteland is particularly important.
As forests have been depleted, their contribution to economic growth has declined sharply in Asia during the past decade. Depletion has occurred despite the fact that Asia's rainforests are among the richest ecosystems on earth, containing nearly half its animal and plant species, many of which have not yet been described. Little research has been carried out to improve understanding of tropical forest ecosystems and their environmental and biological roles.
Large parts of the region's forest have already been converted to permanent agriculture or encroached upon by shifting cultivators. Although some production systems based on plantation crops have proven sustainable, many attempts to establish mixed crop-livestock production systems have led to widespread land degradation, including the spread of pernicious weeds such as Imperata, particularly when fire is extensively used. Population pressure has exacerbated the problem by forcing farmers onto marginal lands which are either too steep or infertile or too wet for continuous cultivation. Policy research is being directed towards the creation of incentives for local community and small-scale farmer involvement in the sustainable management of forest lands, and in improving the productivity and sustainability of agriculture on the forest margin.
Most of the past work on germplasm conservation in the region has focused on food crops. Despite the fact that tropical forest ecosystems supply many staple foods and contain wild relatives of modern food crops important for future breeding programmes, research programmes for collecting forest-based germplasm are weak.
Given the shortage of animal fodder, the demand for fuelwood, and the need to maintain soil fertility and reduce soil erosion, there is considerable potential for agroforestry in the region. There is a particular need for research on the selection and breeding of fast-growing multipurpose species, and on the development of sustainable agroforestry systems for the reclamation of saline and other agricultural wastelands, and for the reforestation of upland areas.
As industrial and social forestry move towards increasing dependence on fast-growing species, there will be a need for expanded research in such areas as soil microbiology (particularly the potential for inoculation with mycorrhiza to improve seedling survival and increase yields); tree selection, breeding and improvement; the potential of modern biotechnology to contribute to improved disease resistance; and the development of biological processes for making use of wood waste.
Industry-related policy research in countries that still contain significant areas of tropical forest is being directed towards improved timber concession, timber taxation and revenue collection systems. This research should be complemented by efforts to develop practices for the sustainable management of natural forests.
Policy research on forest management in upland watersheds is needed to harmonize agricultural, forestry and energy-related policies and to develop more sustainable land use systems. There is also an urgent need to develop a database on forest resources and their uses.
Indiscriminate deforestation is a major environmental concern in Latin America and the Caribbean. The problems associated with deforestation include soil degradation, siltation of water catchments, exacerbation of flooding, increased atmospheric CO2, loss of natural habitats, and extinction of species. Policy research at present is mainly directed towards understanding the causes of accelerated deforestation and towards the creation of incentives for increased participation by farmers and local communities in forest conservation and reforestation. In particular, policies encouraging deforestation for pasture development are being reassessed because, in 50% of the large areas now under pasture, weeds are encroaching and the land is reverting to secondary forest.
In the eroded uplands of the Andean countries, agroforestry research is being directed towards the identification of tree species that can meet basic needs for fuelwood, fodder, building poles, fruits and other products.
Tree improvement programmes and soil microbiology research could contribute significantly to the enhanced productivity of logged and secondary forests. The plantation sector has recently expanded in some countries and already supplies about 30% of the region's industrialized wood requirements in addition to sustaining a major export trade.
National services seeking farmers' cooperation in onfarm agroforestry research and development must ensure the supply of improved seeds of multipurpose trees and shrubs.
In many areas, incorporating trees in pastures (silvopastoral systems) may provide a valuable source of protein during the dry season, in addition to a number of environmental benefits such as shade for ruminants.
Priority areas from a regional perspective include: the development and testing of simple experimental designs and analytical techniques for assessing the contributions of trees and shrubs to mixed production systems; the development of effective seed exchange systems; and improved understanding of the interactions between soil conditions and tree nutrition, including the role of fertilizer in intensifying production in plantations.
From the above review of regional developments and research issues, TAC developed a list of priority research thrusts of common concern to several regions. The thrusts included:
· agroforestry, with special reference to research methodology, the improved quantification of tree/crop/livestock interactions, and the development of improved agroforestry practices:· conservation of woody germplasm, especially of important commercial agricultural and forest tree crops:
· selection, breeding and improvement of multipurpose trees for agroforestry/fuelwood/industrial and other uses; this includes emphasis on seed and clonal propagation, and on tissue culture research;
· natural forest management and conservation; this includes research on growth and yield modelling, silvicultural techniques for the sustainable production of multiple products, and the management of secondary natural forests for multiple products; in particular, research is needed on non-wood products and on the management of secondary and swamp forests;
· man-made forest management; this includes selected areas of silvicultural research relevant to increasing productivity and improving reforestation techniques, particularly growth and yield modelling studies and research on thinning and pruning regimes; special attention would be given to reforestation techniques for the reclamation of wastelands and for increasing fuelwood/forest biomass output, especially in the arid and semi-arid zones; in addition, research on the environmental services of forests is needed;
· soil microbiology, nitrogen fixation, mycorrhizal and associated soil nutrient relationships; and selected aspects of pathology and entomological research, especially for plantations;
· policy, forestry management and socioeconomic research, including research directed toward improved understanding of the underlying causes of deforestation and of policies that would encourage the involvement of people in the conservation of natural forests and in accelerated rural reforestation. This would also include studies on the knowledge of native or local community groups that live in tropical forests.
The above priorities largely correspond with the priorities of the 1988 Bellagio Task Force on Forestry Research.
Investment in research on forestry and forest products in developing countries has been relatively low. FAO has prepared a list of 538 organizations in developing countries that are formally involved in tropical forestry research, of which 45% can be found in Latin America and the Caribbean, 36% in Asia and the Pacific, 14% in sub-Saharan Africa and 5% in West Asia-North Africa (FAO, 1986b). Many of these organizations have few staff (sometimes no scientists), and more detailed information is available on only 238 (or 44%) of them. National/provincial public research bodies (107) make up almost half the total, while universities (67) provide the second largest category, and forestry services branches (37) the third. Few agricultural research institutes (9) or private bodies/development projects (18) carry out research on tropical forestry.
FAO has estimated that, in the organizations for which information was available, the total numbers of forestry research scientists in developing countries amounted to 6,716, of which 53% were located in Asia and the Pacific, 32% in Latin American and the Caribbean, 11% in sub-Saharan Africa and 4% in West Asia-North Africa (FAO, 1986b).
Expenditure on forestry research in developing countries in 1981 amounted to US$ 186 million, of which 60% was allocated to Asia, 21% to sub-Saharan Africa and 19% to Latin America and the Caribbean (Mergen et al, 1988). More recent data are not available, but if past trends are an indication, current annual expenditures may be in excess of US$ 200 million.
Developing countries account for only 12% of total investment in forestry research worldwide. Forestry research intensity in developing countries is considerably less than one-tenth of agricultural research intensity. Forest research expenditures as a percentage of the value of production have been estimated at 0.019 for low-income developing countries, 0.059 for middle-income developing countries and 0.070 for semi-industrialized countries. The corresponding ratios for agricultural research expenditures were estimated at 0.451, 0.863 and 0.816 respectively (Mergen et al, 1988).
To date, there have been no systematic or quantitative analyses of the likely pay off from regionally supported forestry/agroforestry research programmes.
Additional investment in the priority research areas listed above has the potential for making major contributions to human welfare and to sustaining development efforts in fields other than forestry, such as agriculture, hydropower and industrial development. It is impossible to quantify the benefits over time, although the work done by ACIAR has given some indication of the substantial pay off possible from research on fuelwood, and on saw and veneer logs. Nevertheless, it is possible to provide a qualitative assessment of the benefits in terms of the numbers of people who might be affected by an expanded research programme.
For example, people in the Sahel and the Himalayan regions rely on trees as a significant source of livestock fodder. In these areas, the potential exists for some 120 million people to benefit from improved fodder production in addition to fuelwood gains. In these same regions, shelterbelt research could contribute significantly to increasing food security for people living in some of the world's most fragile and hostile agricultural environments. Crop productivity increases of 15-20% can be achieved by planting windbreaks. High priority research thrusts in these regions include above- and below-ground competition for light, water and nutrients; root symbioses (particularly nitrogen fixation); and tree management options for maximizing aboveground leafy biomass production (e.g. via pollarding and coppicing techniques).
In addition to fodder, fuel and shelter benefits, the potential exists to reduce erosion and negative downstream impacts on irrigated agriculture, power production, fish production, etc., by combining the results of tree improvement research with those of policy research on integrated watershed management. Key areas of policy and socioeconomic research that can contribute to improved upland watershed management include tenure and infrastructure policies, the cost-effectiveness of alternative approaches to soil conservation in steep uplands, and incentives for people's participation.
As developing countries expand their reliance on irrigation to increase agricultural productivity and food security, the need to improve upland watershed management also increases. Often, the prevention of future losses (due to watershed deterioration) does not receive the same attention as the expansion of present benefits.
Many of the 300 million people who live in moderately or severely desertified arid regions could benefit from an expansion of research on the management of arid zone woodlands. Effective low-cost management of natural savannah woodlands could provide fuel, fodder and many other locally important products in greater abundance and on an ecologically sound and sustainable basis. Research priorities for arid zone woodlands include appropriate silvicultural technologies for multiple end uses (fodder, fuelwood, honey, medicinal products, timber, charcoal, etc), tree/grassland competition for moisture and nutrients, and the effect of savannah woodland on microclimate.
Research on tree selection, improvement and establishment could more than double the average productivity of trees used for fuelwood in the tropics over the next 15 to 20 years. The application of such research results could benefit at least 200 to 400 million people out of the more than 3,000 million people projected by FAO to face fuelwood shortages past the turn of the century (FAO, 1983). The selection and evaluation of multipurpose species and provenances for fuelwood and other uses will require database development, herbarium collections, the development of methods for matching species and sites; assessment of genetic variation (isozymes) in natural and derived populations; studies on biochemical, calorific, fodder and food values; studies on tolerance to a range of environmental stresses; and studies on physical properties (e.g., fibre quality, moisture content, charcoal acceptability).
Although the benefits are very difficult to quantify, research on the conservation and management of tropical forest ecosystems could make an invaluable contribution to safeguarding a major proportion of the world's genetic diversity. This would ensure that present and future generations will be able to broaden the genetic base for food crops, medicines, industrial products, and other useful goods yet to be discovered among the millions of unknown plant and animal species in tropical forests. Past experience with the domestication of tropical plants suggests that tropical forests are a critical resource which merits protection. The more research can discover additional benefits to be derived from this resource, the better the arguments for protecting it and improving its management.
Research related to industrial development could reduce import bills for forest products in developing countries and, in some cases, increase export revenues. Chile and Brazil are examples of countries which have successfully developed major export markets for their forest products. In 1990 Chile exceeded US$ 700 million in exports of forest products. In addition to species and provenance selection and improvement, plantation-related research priorities include growth and yield modelling studies to increase biomass output under intensive management systems, soil microbiology, soil mycorrhizal research related to fast-growing species, soil fertility, nutrient cycling, and studies on the hydrological implications of plantation forestry.
Tree selection and improvement research has already shown the potential for substantially reducing the cost of producing wood in the tropics. Lower costs, if passed on to consumers, imply lower prices for products such as paper. Low-cost paper available to educational programmes could help raise the literacy levels of hundreds of millions of people. ACIAR has recently estimated the benefits to consumers of such research, and found them to be substantial.
Policy research to improve understanding of the underlying causes of deforestation would study the impact of agricultural settlement, fiscal incentives, road building and land tenure policies on expansion of the agricultural frontier. Such research could lead to revised timber taxation, concession licenses and revenue collection systems that would encourage local community and private-sector participation in improved natural forest management and plantation forestry.
A major objective of all CGIAR activities in forestry and agroforestry must be to ensure that the benefits of research reach the poor. Research to integrate conservation and production at the local level is bound to be unsuccessful unless this is achieved.
